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Little penguin

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"Kororā" redirects here. For the extinct penguin genus, see Korora.
This article is about the species endemic to New Zealand. For the species found in Australia and Otago, New Zealand, see Eudyptula novaehollandiae.

Little penguin
Little penguin (Eudyptula minor), moving up from the shore at night towards its burrow on Kapiti Island, New Zealand.
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Sphenisciformes
Family: Spheniscidae
Genus: Eudyptula
Species:
E. minor
Binomial name
Eudyptula minor
(Forster, 1781)
The range of Eudyptula minor is in blue.[2]

The little penguin (Eudyptula minor) is a species of penguin from New Zealand. They are commonly known as fairy penguins, little blue penguins, or blue penguins, owing to their slate-blue plumage and are also known by their Māori name kororā. They are fossorial birds.[citation needed]

The Australian little penguin (Eudyptula novaehollandiae), from Australia and the Otago region of New Zealand, is considered a separate species by a 2016 study[3] and a 2019 study.[4]

Eudyptula minor feathers are dense in melanosomes which attribute to both their strength to swim fast through the water, and its unique blue colour [5]

Taxonomy

[edit]
A white-flippered penguin in the South Island.

The little penguin was first described by German naturalist Johann Reinhold Forster in 1781. Several subspecies are known, but a precise classification of these is still a matter of dispute. The holotypes of the subspecies E. m. variabilis[6] and Eudyptula minor chathamensis[7] are in the collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. The white-flippered penguin (E. m. albosignata or E. m. minor morpha albosignata) is currently considered by most taxonomists to be a colour morph or subspecies of Eudyptula minor. In 2008, Shirihai treated the little penguin and white-flippered penguin as allospecies.[8] However, as of 2012, the IUCN and BirdLife International consider the white-flippered penguin to be a subspecies or morph of the little penguin.

Little penguins from New Zealand and Australia were once considered to be the same species, called Eudyptula minor. Analysis of mtDNA in 2002 revealed two clades in Eudyptula: one containing little penguins of New Zealand's North Island, Cook Strait and Chatham Island, as well as the white-flippered penguin, and a second containing little penguins of Australia and the Otago region of New Zealand.[9] Preliminary analysis of braying calls and cluster analysis of morphometrics partially supported these results.[9] A 2016 study described the Australian little penguin as a new and separate species, Eudyptula novaehollandiae. E. minor is endemic to New Zealand, while E. novaehollandiae is found in Australia and Otago.[3] A 2019 study supported the recognition of E. minor and E. novaehollandiae as separate species.[4]

This IUCN assessment treats Eudyptula minor and Eudyptula novaehollandiae as just one species. Are used interchangeably throughout report to specify location, however are considered a part of the same species

Description

[edit]
Little blue penguin in Wellington Zoo, NZ

Like those of all penguins, the wings of Eudyptula species have developed into flippers used for swimming.

Eudyptula species typically grow to between 30 and 33 cm (12 and 13 in) tall and on average weigh 1.5 kg (3.3 lb). The head and upper parts are blue in colour, with slate-grey ear coverts fading to white underneath, from the chin to the belly. Their flippers are blue in colour. The dark grey-black beak is 3–4 cm long, the irises pale silvery- or bluish-grey or hazel, and the feet pink above with black soles and webbing. An immature individual will have a shorter bill and lighter upperparts.[10]

Like most seabirds, the Eudyptula species have a long lifespan. The average for the species is 6.5 years, but flipper ringing experiments show that in very exceptional cases they may live up to 25 years in captivity.[11]

Eudyptula minor does not have the distinct bright blue feathers that distinguish Eudyptula novaehollandiae. In addition, the vocalisation patterns of the New Zealand lineage located on Tiritiri Matangi Island vary from the Australian lineage located in Oamaru. Females are known to prefer the local call of the New Zealand lineage.

There are also behavioural differences that help differentiate these penguins. Those of the Australian lineage will swim together in a large group after dusk and walk along the shore to reach their nesting sites. This may be an effective predator avoidance strategy by traveling in a large group simultaneously. This has not been seen by those of the New Zealand lineage. Eudyptula minor only recently encountered terrestrial vertebrate predators, while Eudyptula novaehollandiae would have had to deal with carnivorous marsupials.

Distribution and habitat

[edit]
Eudyptula minor family exiting burrow
See also: List of little penguin colonies § New Zealand

Eudyptula minor breeds along most of the coastline of New Zealand, including the Chatham Islands. However, Eudyptula minor does not occur in Otago, which is located on the east coast of New Zealand's South Island. The Australian species Eudyptula novaehollandiae occurs in Otago.[12] E. novaehollandiae was originally endemic to Australia. Using ancient-DNA analysis and radiocarbon dating using historical, pre-human, as well as archaeological Eudyptula remains, the arrival of the Australian species in New Zealand was determined to have occurred roughly between AD 1500 and 1900. When the E. minor population declined in New Zealand, it left a genetic opening for E. novaehollandiae. The decrease of E. minor was most likely due to anthropogenic effects, such as being hunted by humans as well as introduced predators,[13] including dogs brought from overseas.

It has been determined that the population of Eudyptula novaehollandiae in Otago arrived even more recently than previously estimated due to mulitlocus coalescent analyses.[14]

Outside of the Otago region, all colonies are expected to belong to the sub species Eudyptula novaehollandiae Many of these colonies are smaller and more patchily distributed than larger Eudyptula minorcolonies that exist in Australia and Otago. Extensive research exists on Philip Island[15] and Oamaru colonies as they are sites of large colonies which attract large groups of tourists [16] Population size and trends of colonies in New Zealand remain poorly documented, what is known is colonies in New Zealand commonly consist of smaller fragmented groups in comparison to Australias larger colonies, some with <10 breeding pairs, this is largely attributed to NZs fragmented coastline separating the larger colonies. This is commonly seen in Kaikoura where 6-7 smaller colonies have been found along 1.7% of coastline [16][17]

Behaviour

[edit]
Little penguin swimming in Otago region

Feeding

[edit]

Little penguins are central place foragers, meaning they will travel distances to forage but always return to the same nest or colony.[18] They are also a species where both parents are required to raise chicks, and alternate foraging trips while the other is guarding and incubating the nest during the post guard stage. These stints can last anywhere between 1–10 days during incubation.[16] Despite nesting on the shore, little penguins forage at sea and feed on a diet ranging from small schooling fish, to cephalopods, krill, and microzooplankton.[19] As the species is widely distributed across a range of habitats in New Zealand and Australia, variation in diet and foraging choice has also arisen. Important little penguin prey items include arrow squid, slender sprat, Graham's gudgeon, red cod, and ahuru.[20]

Little penguins feed by hunting small clupeoid fish, cephalopods, and crustaceans, for which they travel and dive quite extensively,[21][22] including to the sea floor. Foraging efficiency has been found to be significantly influenced by age. Foraging success appears to stabilise selection for middle-aged penguins, as feeding is a learnt behaviour but also requires good physical condition.[23][24]

For the Philip Island and other Southern Australian colonies, anchovies are the primary food source.[25] Anchovies are rich in oils and nutritional value. Although the diet of the Philip Island colony has diversified to include selections of cephalopods and krill during the post guard stage of their life cycle where greater amounts of energy is required for chick development and egg production, resident penguins predominantly rely on anchovies when more energy is required.[26]

The nature of their diet also impacts foraging methods, which may vary by colony depending on what food is available. When prey is larger and individuals are only catching 1-2 items at a time, they are more likely to hunt alone to reduce competition, whereas smaller and more mobile prey, or schooling prey species, promote group hunting to enable efficient encirclement.[27] The Oamaru colony predominantly feeds on smaller schooling species such as sprat and gudgeon, while penguins from the Stewart/Codfish Island colonies more often hunt alone. The latter is likely linked to a predominantly cephalopods diet (58% of prey items at < 10 gm each).[16]

Prey availability

[edit]

Rising ocean temperatures has seen a trend towards earlier onset of breeding in Eudyptula minor but this does not always align with the availability of their prey. This is because higher sea surface temperatures are associated with early onset of nesting, but also associated with lower nutrients and oxygen availability.[25] During the breeding season parents are restricted to a short foraging area close to their nest and are therefore vulnerable to small regional changes.[28] La Niña Southern Oscilation events increasing the sea surface temperature along the New Zealand coastline caused prey such as schooling fish and krill to either become more regionally scarce or migrate to new habitats.[21] Grahams Gudgeon once dominated the diet of the Oamaru colony of Eudyptula minor, however in 1995 the availability of species from 20% in December to 0% in January the following year. Penguins were able to successfully adapt and their diet instead began to consist of slender sprat and pigfish [29]

Double brooding

[edit]

If penguins produce a second clutch of eggs in a season once the first chicks have fledged, this is known as double brooding.[30] Thus far this behaviour has only been observed in the Eudyptula novaehollandiae the lineage of little blue penguins which inhabit Australian and Otago regions, there is not evidence to suggest this is an established behaviour within Eudyptula minor, however double broods are occasionally noticed among the colonies in the Kaikoura coastline [31] It is unsure yet whether this is means double brooding is a genetically mediated behaviour. There is also an uneven distribution of research carried out across the sub species of little penguin the Eudyptula novaehollandiae are disproportionally researched more than others because they occur in large colonies which such as the Philip Island penguin parade, and the Oamaru penguin colony which have attracted international and local tourism and are understanding their behaviours are important to economic success [32] In a study carried out on Oamaru penguin colony found double broods to increase breeding success by up to 75% a season.[30] Double brooding is more likely to occur in individuals who lay their first clutch, prior to mid-September.[16] While there is some inter annual variability, the most common period for little penguins to lay their first clutch in spring, mid-September is considered early and gives species time left in the season to lay a second clutch of eggs after the first have fledged [33]

Double brooding is a behaviour which its onset can be strongly influenced by sea surface temperature, age and food availability [34] Warmer sea surface temperature in summer and autumn corellated with earlier laying of first clutch of eggs increasing the chances of double brooding.[30] In contrast, in New Zealand it was observed that during periods of El Niño Southern Oscilation where colder temperature water was being brought to the surface there was a delay in the onset of breeding for the Eudyptula novaehollaniae, thus resulting in a lower incidence of double brooding in the Otago colonies.[35] Age is also believed to be a factor effecting double brooding because the pairs successfully able to double brood were most commonly strategic in reclaiming successful nests and pair-bonds. Little penguins show a high nest fidelity, and the ability to reclaim success early suggests it is likely that successful double brooding is a behaviour that improves with age. Another influencing factor is the availability of food, for larger colonies such as the Philip Islands, competition for food can increase significantly during the breeding season, particularly if there is variability in the amount of prey available.[16] If this competition results in aggression between adults this can also influence ability to successfully raise chicks, and be able to successfully breed in the next season.

Foraging behaviour

[edit]
Eudyptula minor foraging at Arctic Research centre in Christchurch

During the breeding season, Eudyptula minor are central place foragers, this means that they travel within their home range to find food, but will return to their nest to feed both themselves and their chicks. Their foraging range is limited by how long chicks can fast, and the high energetic of costs of constant travelling for individuals.[36] Such a behaviour has resulted in both a small foraging range, and therefore higher possibility of competition when prey availability is more scarce [24] Particularly during breeding season when energy demands for both parents and chicks are at their highest, in order to survive Eudyptula minor adapt to these constraints by increasing the plasticity and variability in their foraging behaviour, which includes spatial, age, or diet based segregation [37] During chick rearing, parents will make on average one day long foraging trips within a 30 km radius of their nest.[24]

Research conducted on the Philip Island colony found the spatial segregeation of foraging behaviour was primarily determined by age rather than biological sex.[24] In long lived species such as seabirds, it is during the middle age of their lifetimes where they are expected to be in the best physical condition. This is why in Eudyptula minor, middle aged individuals foraged at greater distances from their nests and were able to dive greater distances[38] Older penguins are found to forage closer to the shore than middle aged adults [24]

When foraging in groups, they were also observed to all be of a similar age cohort, likely that when the prey available is small schooling prey and is more advantageous for penguins to forage as a group [39] If the groups are segregated by age, this is likely because they are at the same foraging ability and occupy the same approximate range [24]

Threats

[edit]

Introduced predators

[edit]

Introduced mammalian predators present the greatest terrestrial risk to little penguins and include cats, dogs, rats, and particularly ferrets and stoats.[40][41] As examples significant dog attacks have been recorded at the colony at Little Kaiteriteri Beach,[42] and a suspected stoat or ferret attack at Doctor's Point near Dunedin, New Zealand claimed the lives of 29 little blue penguins in November 2014.[43]

Oil spills

[edit]

Little penguin populations have been significantly affected by a major oil spill with the grounding of the Rena off New Zealand in 2011, which killed 2,000 seabirds (including little penguins) directly, and killed an estimated 20,000 in total based on wider ecosystem impacts.[44][45] Oil spills are the most common cause of the little penguins being admitted to the rehabilitation facilities at Phillip Island Nature Park (PINP). These oil spill recurrences have endangered not just the little penguins, but the entire penguin population. This can further decline the population, which can lead to possible extinction.[46]

Fire

[edit]

Increased frequency of drought and extreme temperatures in Southern Australia has led to an increased fire risk.[21] Being flightless birds that nest on land, little blue penguins are especially vulnerable to fire. Behavioural traits such as reluctancy to abandon nests and emerging mostly during daylit hours is thought to be some of the main reasons for increased vulnerability in the future.[47] The threats it provides include nest and habitat distruption, as well as deadly to eggs and individuals, despite this Eudyptula minorappears to show no fear towards fire when directly exposed. When observed, they have been to found to remain around or under vegetation until severely burnt or injured. Some have even been observed preening their feathers near to open flames.[25]

Fires can also significantly alter the composition of vegetation in Eudyptula minor habitats. A large fire in Marion Bay, South Australia in 1994 saw the loss of two key plant species; introduced marram grass Ammophila and coastal wattle A.sophorae. Following the fire, these grasses were replaced by invasive palms A.arenia and A.sophoraegrew back in dense thickets. This habitat became no longer suitable for Eudyptula minor and colony relocated.[48]

Conservation

[edit]

Eudyptula species are classified as "at risk - declining" under New Zealand's Wildlife Act 1953.[49] Overall, little penguin populations in New Zealand have been decreasing. Some colonies have become extinct, and others continue to be at risk.[41] Some new colonies have been established in urban areas.[40] The species is not considered endangered in New Zealand, with the exception of the white-flippered subspecies found only on Banks Peninsula and nearby Motunau Island. Since the 1960s, the mainland population has declined by 60-70%; though a small increase has occurred on Motunau Island. A colony exists in Wellington Harbor on Matiu / Somes Island.[50]

Traffic sign warning of little penguins crossing on the West Coast of New Zealand

Protestors have opposed the development of a marina at Kennedy Point, Waiheke Island in New Zealand for the risk it poses to little penguins and their habitat.[51] Protesters claimed that they exhausted all legal means to oppose the project and have had to resort to occupation and non-violent resistance. Several arrests have been made for trespassing.[52]

The West Coast Penguin Trust and DOC have worked in collaboration to maintain data on penguin mortality, the West Coast South Island colonies are highlighted as one of the Eudyptula minor colonies currently facing decline[53] The data shows highest level of penguin mortality is caused by roadkill, likely due to many of the colonies being close to coastal highway. To mitigate this issue, a penguin-proof fence was erected in 2019 across 3.3 km of highway where road kill was most prevalent, no roadkill deaths have been recorded since its implementation [16]

The risk of fire damage to habitats in Philip Island has been partially mitigated through the planting of fire-resistant indigenous vegetation in and around the nesting sites. Thus far this planting has occurred primarily in the <10% of the colony most visible from tourist look-out points [25]

In 1997 in NSW, the Eudyptula minor was listed as an endangered species under the endangered species act 1995. Since then conservation efforts such as public education, nest monitoring and labelling it as ‘critical habitat’ were implemented. Despite these efforts, this mainland colony was met with additional challenges from threats from wild dogs and foxes, to lack of available local prey. Species is now listed as at-risk declining under the same act [54]

Zoological exhibits

[edit]
Little penguins at Birch Aquarium, La Jolla

Zoological exhibits featuring purpose-built enclosures for Eudyptula species can be seen in Australia at the Adelaide Zoo, Melbourne Zoo, the National Zoo & Aquarium in Canberra, Perth Zoo, Caversham Wildlife Park (Perth), Ballarat Wildlife Park, Sea Life Sydney Aquarium,[55] and the Taronga Zoo in Sydney.[56][57][58][59][60][61][62] Enclosures include nesting boxes or similar structures for the animals to retire into, a reconstruction of a pool and in some cases, a transparent aquarium wall to allow patrons to view the animals underwater while they swim.

Eudyptula penguin exhibit exists at Sea World, on the Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia. In early March 2007, 25 of the 37 penguins died from an unknown toxin following a change of gravel in their enclosure.[63][64][65] It is still not known what caused the deaths of the penguins, and it was decided not to return the 12 surviving penguins to the same enclosure where the penguins became ill.[66] A new enclosure for the little penguin colony was opened at Sea World in 2008.[67]

In New Zealand, Eudyptula penguin exhibits exist at the Auckland Zoo, the Wellington Zoo, and the National Aquarium of New Zealand.[68] Since 2017, the National Aquarium of New Zealand, has featured a monthly "Penguin of the Month" board, declaring two of their resident animals the "Naughty" and "Nice" penguin for that month. Photos of the board have gone viral and gained the aquarium a large worldwide social media following.[69]

In the United States, Eudyptula penguins can be seen at the Louisville Zoo[70] the Bronx Zoo,[71] and the Cincinnati Zoo.[72][73]

See also

[edit]

icon Animals portal

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ This IUCN assessment treats Eudyptula minor and Eudyptula novaehollandiae as just one species.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ BirdLife International (2020). "Eudyptula minor". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T22697805A202126091. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T22697805A202126091.en. Retrieved 13 November 2021.
  2. ^ "Fig 1. Map of distribution of Eudyptula penguins. Blue and red colours..." ResearchGate. Retrieved 15 May 2022.
  3. ^ a b Grosser, Stefanie; Rawlence, Nicolas J.; Anderson, Christian N. K.; Smith, Ian W. G.; Scofield, R. Paul; Waters, Jonathan M. (10 February 2016). "Invader or resident? Ancient-DNA reveals rapid species turnover in New Zealand little penguins". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 283 (1824): 20152879. doi:10.1098/rspb.2015.2879. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 4760177. PMID 26842575.
  4. ^ a b Cole, Theresa L; Ksepka, Daniel T; Mitchell, Kieren J; Tennyson, Alan J D; Thomas, Daniel B; Pan, Hailin; Zhang, Guojie; Rawlence, Nicolas J; Wood, Jamie R; Bover, Pere; Bouzat, Juan L (1 April 2019). "Mitogenomes Uncover Extinct Penguin Taxa and Reveal Island Formation as a Key Driver of Speciation". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 36 (4): 784–797. doi:10.1093/molbev/msz017. ISSN 0737-4038. PMID 30722030.
  5. ^ Julia A. Clarke et al. ,Fossil Evidence for Evolution of the Shape and Color of Penguin Feathers.Science330,954-957(2010).
  6. ^ "Eudyptula minor variabilis; holotype". Collections Online. Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. Retrieved 17 July 2010.
  7. ^ "Eudyptula minor chathamensis; holotype". Collections Online. Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. Retrieved 17 July 2010.
  8. ^ Shirihai, Hadoram (2008). The Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife, 2d Edition. Princeton University Press.
  9. ^ a b Banks, Jonathan C.; Mitchell, Anthony D.; Waas, Joseph R. & Paterson, Adrian M. (2002): An unexpected pattern of molecular divergence within the blue penguin (Eudyptula minor) complex. Notornis 49(1): 29–38. PDF fulltext
  10. ^ Williams, Tony D. (1995). The penguins : Spheniscidae. Rory P. Wilson, P. Dee Boersma, David L. Stokes, Jeff Davies, John Busby. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854667-X. OCLC 30736089.
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  13. ^ Grosser, Stefanie. "NZ's southern little penguins are recent Aussie invaders: Otago research". University of Otago. University of Otago: Department of Zoology. Retrieved 11 May 2016.
  14. ^ Grosser, Stefanie; Burridge, Christopher P.; Peucker, Amanda J.; Waters, Jonathan M. (14 December 2015). "Coalescent Modelling Suggests Recent Secondary-Contact of Cryptic Penguin Species". PLOS ONE. 10 (12): e0144966. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1044966G. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0144966. PMC 4682933. PMID 26675310.
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  18. ^ Olsson, O., Helf, K. L., & Brown, J. S. (2008). A guide to central place effects in foraging [Review of A guide to central place effects in foraging]. Theoretical Population Biology, 74(1), 22–33
  19. ^ Braidwood, J., Kunz, J., & Wilson, K. J. (2011). Effect of habitat features on the breeding success of the blue penguin (Eudyptula minor) on the West Coast of New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 38(2), 131–141.
  20. ^ Flemming, S.A. (2013) "[1]". In Miskelly, C.M. (ed.) New Zealand Birds Online
  21. ^ a b c Flemming, S.A., Lalas, C., and van Heezik, Y. (2013) "Little penguin (Eudyptula minor) diet at three breeding colonies in New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Ecology 37: 199–205 Accessed 30 January 2014.
  22. ^ "Little Penguin Factsheet" Auckland Council, New Zealand (28 February 2014). Retrieved 2014-07-26.
  23. ^ Zimmer, I., Ropert-Coudert, Y., Kato, A., Ancel, A., & Chiaradia, A. (2011). Does Foraging Performance Change with Age in Female Little Penguins (Eudyptula minor)? PLoS One, 6(1)https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0016098
  24. ^ a b c d e f Pelletier, L., Chiaradia, A., Kato, A., & Ropert-Coudert, Y. (2014). Fine-scale spatial age segregation in the limited foraging area of an inshore seabird species, the little penguin. Oecologia, 176(2), 399+.
  25. ^ a b c d Dann, P., & Chambers, L. (2013). Ecological effects of climate change on little penguins Eudyptula minor and the potential economic impact on tourism [Review of Ecological effects of climate change on little penguins Eudyptula minor and the potential economic impact on tourism]. Climate Research, 58(1), 67–79. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24896130
  26. ^ Chiaradia, A., Forero, M. G., Hobson , K. A., Swearer, S., Hume , F., Dann, P., & Renwick, L. (2011). Diet segregation between two colonies of little penguins Eudyptula minor in southeast Australia [Review of Diet segregation between two colonies of little penguins Eudyptula minor in southeast Australia]. Austral Ecology , 37(5), 610–619.
  27. ^ Sutton, G. J., Hoskins, A. J., & Arnould, J. P. Y. (2015). Benefits of Group Foraging Depend on Prey Type in a Small Marine Predator, the Little Penguin. PLoS ONE, 10(12).
  28. ^ (Cullen, J. M., Chambers, L. E., Coutin, P. C., & Dann, P. (2009). Predicting onset and success of breeding in little penguins Eudyptula minor from ocean temperatures. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 378, 269–278.)
  29. ^ Agnew, P., Lalas, C., Wright, J., & Dawson, S. (2015). Variation in breeding success and survival of little penguins Eudyptula minor in response to environmental variation. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 541, 219–229.
  30. ^ a b c (Agnew, P., Houston, D., Lalas, C. et al. Variation in reproductive performance of Little Penguins (Eudyptula minor) attributable to double brooding. J Ornithol 155, 101–109 (2014).)
  31. ^ (Rowe, L. K., Weir, J. S., & Judkins, A. G. (2020). Breeding of little penguins (Eudyptula minor), including multiple brooding, at South Bay, Kaikōura, New Zealand, 2006–2017. Notornis, 67(2), 451-458.)
  32. ^ (Gales, R. (1985). Breeding Seasons and Double Brooding of the Little Penguin Eudyptula Minor in New Zealand. Emu - Austral Ornithology, 85(2), 127–130.)
  33. ^ (Chambers, L. E. (2004). Delayed breeding in Little Penguins–evidence of climate change. Australian Meteorological Magazine, 53(1), 13-19.)
  34. ^ (Grosser, S., Burridge, C. P., Peucker, A. J., & Waters, J. M. (2015). Coalescent Modelling Suggests Recent Secondary-Contact of Cryptic Penguin Species. PloS one, 10(12), e0144966.)
  35. ^ (Cullen, J. M., Chambers, L. E., Coutin, P. C., & Dann, P. (2009). Predicting onset and success of breeding in little penguins Eudyptula minor from ocean temperatures. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 378, 269–278.).
  36. ^ Berlincourt, M., Arnould,J. P., & Y. (2015). Influence of environmental conditions on foraging behaviour and its consequences on reproductive performance in little penguins. Marine Biology, 162(7), 1485-1501.
  37. ^ Diet segregation between two colonies of little penguins Eudyptulaminor in southeast Australia. Austral Ecology, 37: 610-619.
  38. ^ (Zim m er, I., Ropert-Coudert, Y., Kato, A., Ancel, A., & Chiaradia, A. (2011). Does ForagingPerformance Change with Age in Fem ale Little Penguins (Eudyptula minor)? PLoS One, 6(1))
  39. ^ Sutton, G. J., Hoskins, A. J., & Arnould, J. P. Y. (2015). Benefits of GroupForaging Depend on Prey Type in a Small Marine Predator, the Little Penguin. PLoS ONE, 10(12)
  40. ^ a b Grabski, Valerie (2009). "Little Penguin - Penguin Project". Penguin Sentinels/University of Washington. Archived from the original on 16 December 2011. Retrieved 25 November 2011.
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  42. ^ Carson, Jonathan (3 September 2014). "DOC devastated by death of penguins". The Nelson Mail. Retrieved 4 September 2014.
  43. ^ Mead, Thomas (5 November 2014). "Stoat suspected in Little blue penguin massacre". 3 News. Archived from the original on 11 November 2014. Retrieved 11 November 2014.
  44. ^ Backhouse, Matthew (28 December 2011). "Penguin reigns in battle for nation's hearts". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 28 March 2012.
  45. ^ "Rena: Oil clean-up chemical worries Greenpeace". The New Zealand Herald. 25 November 2011. Retrieved 28 March 2012.
  46. ^ Goldsworthy, S. D.; Giese, M.; Gales, R. P.; Brothers, N.; Hamill, J. (2000). "Effects of the Iron Baron oil spill on little penguins (Eudyptula minor). II. Post-release survival of rehabilitated oiled birds". Wildlife Research. 27 (6): 573–582. doi:10.1071/wr99076. ISSN 1448-5494.
  47. ^ Berlincourt, M., Arnould, J. P., & Y. (2015). Influence of environmental conditions on foraging behaviour and its consequences on reproductive performance in little penguins. Marine Biology, 162(7), 1485-1501
  48. ^ Stevenson, C., & Woehler, E. J. (2007). Population decreases in little penguins Eudyptula minor in southeastern Tasmania, Australia, over the past 45 years. Marine Ornithology, 35, 71-76.
  49. ^ "Wildlife Act 1953 No 31 (as at 02 August 2019), Public Act Contents – New Zealand Legislation". legislation.govt.nz. Retrieved 28 May 2020.
  50. ^ "Matiu/Somes Island - Nature and conservation". Department of Conservation. New Zealand Government. Retrieved 3 November 2023.
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Further reading

[edit]
  • Williams, Tony D. (1995). The Penguins. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854667-X.
[edit]
Wikispecies has information related to Eudyptula minor.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eudyptula minor.
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