Jump to content

Lingam

Checked
Page protected with pending changes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Lingum)

"Linga" and "Shivling" redirect here. For other uses, see Linga (disambiguation) and Shivling (disambiguation).

A lingam with tripundra, projected on a yoni base
Part of a series on
Shaivism
Deities
Parameshvara
(Supreme being)
Shiva
Shakti
Scriptures and texts
Philosophy
Three Components
Three bondages
other aspects
Practices
Schools
Ati marga
Mantra marga

Saiddhantika

Non - Saiddhantika

Others
Scholars
Related
Hinduism portal

A lingam (Sanskrit: लिङ्ग IAST: liṅga, lit. "sign, symbol or mark"), sometimes referred to as linga or Shiva linga, is an abstract or aniconic representation of the Hindu god Shiva in Shaivism.[1] The word lingam is found in the Upanishads and epic literature, where it means a "mark, sign, emblem, characteristic,"[2] the "evidence, proof, symptom" of God and God's power.[1][2][3][4][5][6]

The lingam of the Shaivism tradition is a short cylindrical pillar-like symbol of Shiva, made of stone, metal, gem, wood, clay or precious stones.[1][7] It is often represented within a disc-shaped platform,[1][8] the yoni – its feminine counterpart,[9][10] consisting of a flat element, horizontal compared to the vertical lingam, and designed to allow liquid offerings to drain away for collection.[11]

The lingam is an emblem of generative and destructive power. While rooted in representations of the male sexual organ,[12] the lingam is regarded as the "outward symbol" of the "formless Reality", the symbolization of merging of the 'primordial matter' (Prakṛti) with the 'pure consciousness' (Purusha) in transcendental context.[13] The lingam-yoni iconography symbolizes the merging of microcosmos and macrocosmos,[10] the divine eternal process of creation and regeneration, and the union of the feminine and the masculine that recreates all of existence.[11][14]

The lingam is typically the primary murti or devotional image in Hindu temples dedicated to Shiva, also found in smaller shrines, or as self-manifested natural objects.[15][16]

Etymology and nomenclature

[edit]

Lingam, states Monier Monier-Williams, appears in the Upanishads and epic literature, where it means a "mark, sign, emblem, characteristic".[2][17] Other contextual meanings of the term include "evidence, proof, symptom" of God and God's power.[2][3]

The word lingam is found in Sanskrit texts, such as Shvetashvatara Upanishad, Samkhya, Vaisheshika and others texts with the meaning of "evidence" of God and God's existence,[18] or existence of formless Brahman.[19] The original meaning of lingam as "sign" is used in Shvetashvatara Upanishad, which says "Shiva, the Supreme Lord, has no liūga", liuga (Sanskrit: लि‌ऊग IAST: liūga) meaning he is transcendental, beyond any characteristic and, specifically, the sign of gender.[4][20]

The term also appears in early Indian texts on logic, where an inference is based on a sign (linga), such as "if there is smoke, there is fire" where the linga is the smoke.[2] It is a religious symbol in Hinduism representing Shiva as the generative power,[17] all of existence, all creativity and fertility at every cosmic level.[9][21]

In early Sanskrit medical texts, linga means "symptom, signs" and plays a key role in the diagnosis of a sickness, the disease.[22][23][24] The author of classical Sanskrit grammar treatise, Panini, states that the verbal root ling which means "paint, variegate", has the sense "that which paints, variegates, characterizes". Panini as well as Patanjali additionally mention lingam with the contextual meaning of the "gender".[25][26]

In the Vaisheshika Sutras, it means "proof or evidence", as a conditionally sufficient mark or sign. This Vaisheshika theory is adopted in the early Sanskrit medical literature.[5] Like the Upanishads, where linga means "mark, sign, characteristic", the texts of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy use linga in the same sense.[27][28] In the Samkhya sutras, and in Gaudapada's commentary on Samkhyakarika, the term linga has many contextual meanings such as in verses 1.124.136, 3.9.16 and 5.21.61, as it develops its theory of the nature of Atman (Self) and Sarira (body, prakriti) and its proposed mechanism of rebirth.[6][29] In the Purva Mimamsa Sutra and the Vedanta sutra, as well as the commentaries on them, the term linga appears quite often, particularly in the form of "lingadarsanacca" as a form of citing or referencing prior Hindu literature. This phrase connotes "[we have found an] indicative sign", such as the "indicative sign is in a Vedic passage".[30]

A linga-yoni in Nepal carved with four seated Buddhas.

The term linga also appears in Buddhist and Jaina literature, where it means "sign, evidence" in one context, or "subtle body" with sexual connotations in another.[31][note 1]

Iconography

[edit]
Lingam iconography exists in many forms, and their design are described in the Agama texts. Left: a 5th-century Mukha-linga (with face), Right: a Sahasra-linga (with 1001 carvings).

Various styles

[edit]

The lingam of the Shaivism tradition is a short cylindrical pillar-like symbol of Shiva, made of stone, metal, gem, wood, clay or precious stones.[7][1][32]

Various styles of lingam iconography are found on the Indian subcontinent and southeast Asia.[33][34] The historic lingam iconography has included:

  • Lingam-yoni, wherin the lingam is placed within a lipped, disked structure that is an emblem of goddess Shakti and this is called the yoni. Together they symbolize the union of the feminine and the masculine principles, and "the totality of all existence", states Encyclopædia Britannica.[1]
  • Mukhalingam, where the lingam has the face of Shiva carved on it.[35][36] An Ekmukha lingam has just one face, Chaturmukha lingam has four faces in the cardinal directions, while a Panchamukha lingam has a total of five (the fifth is on the top) and represents Sadashiva.[37][38] Among the mukha-lingam varieties, the four face version are more common.[39]
  • Ashtottara-sata linga, where 108 miniature lingas are carved on the pujabhaga (main linga) following certain geometric principles.[40]
  • Sahasra linga, where 1001 miniature lingas are carved on the pujabhaga (main linga) following certain geometric principles (set in 99 vertical lines, 11 horizontal).[41]
  • Dhara linga, where lingas have five to sixty four fluted facets, with prime numbers and multiples of four particularly favored.[42]
  • Lingodbhavamurti, where Shiva is seen as emerging from within a fiery lingam.[1] On top of this icon is sometimes a relief of a swan or goose representing Brahma, and a boar at the bottom representing the Varaha avatar of Vishnu. This reflects the Shaiva legend describing a competition between Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu, as to who has priority and superiority.[1]
Lingam as interpreted in the Shaiva Siddhanta tradition, a major school of Shaivism. The icon is regarded to represent the Parashiva and Parashakti aspects of Shiva and Parvati.

Construction

[edit]

A lingam may be made of clay (mrinmaya), metal (lohaja), precious stone (ratnaja), wood (daruja), stone (sailaja, most common), or a disposable material (kshanika).[32] The construction method, proportions and design is described in Shaiva Agama texts.[32] The lingam is typically set in the center of a pindika (also called yoni or pithas, symbolizing Shakti). A pindika may be circular, square, octagonal, hexagonal, duodecagonal, sixteen sided, elliptical, triangular or another shape.[43] Some lingams are miniaturized and they are carried on one's person, such as by Lingayats in a necklace. These are called chala-lingams.[32] The Hindu temple design manuals recommend geometric ratios for the linga, the sanctum and the various architectural features of the temple according to certain mathematical rules it considers perfect and sacred.[44] Anthropologist Christopher John Fuller states that although most sculpted images (murtis) are anthropomorphic or theriomorphic, the aniconic Shiva Linga is an important exception.[45]

Meaning

[edit]

Representation of Shiva

[edit]

The lingam is conceptualized both as an emblem of generative and destructive power,[11][46] particularly in the esoteric Kaula and Tantra practices, as well as the Shaivism and Shaktism traditions of Hinduism.[47]

The lingam and yoni together symbolize the merging of microcosmos and macrocosmos,[10] the divine eternal process of creation and regeneration, and the union of the feminine and the masculine that recreates all of existence.[11][14] The lingam is regarded as the "outward symbol" of the "formless Reality", the symbolization of merging of the 'primordial matter' (Prakṛti) with the 'pure consciousness' (Purusha) in transcendental context.[48] Sivaya Subramuniyaswami elaborates that the lingam signifies three perfections of Shiva.[8] The upper oval part of the lingam represents Parashiva and the lower part of the lingam, called the pitha, represents Parashakti.[8] In the representation of Parashiva, Shiva is regarded to be the absolute reality, the timeless, formless, and spaceless. In the representation of Parashakti, Shiva is regarded to be all-pervasive, pure consciousness, the power and primal substance of all that exists. Parashakti is regarded to possess form, unlike Parashiva, which is formless.[49][4]

According to Sivananda Saraswati, the lingam speaks unmistakable language of silence: "I am one without a second, I am formless".[50] It is only the outward symbol of formless being, Shiva, who is eternal, ever-pure, immortal essence of this vast universe, who is your innermost Self or Atman, and who is identical with the Supreme Brahman, states Sivananda Saraswati.[50]

To some Shaivites the lingam symbolizes the axis of the universe.[51]

According to Shaiva Siddhanta, the linga is the ideal substrate in which the worshipper should install and worship the five-faced and ten-armed Sadāśiva, the form of Shiva who is the focal divinity of that school of Shaivism.[52]

Phallus symbol

[edit]

Phallic origins

[edit]

Scholars, such as Wendy Doniger and Rohit Dasgupta, view linga as extrapolations of what was originally a phallic symbol.[53][54][55][56]

According to Doniger, there is persuasive evidence in later Sanskrit literature that the early Indians associated the lingam icon with the male sexual organ;[12] the 11th-century Kashmir text Narmamala by Kshemendra on satire and fiction writing explains his ideas on parallelism with divine lingam and human lingam in a sexual context. Various Shaiva texts, such as the Skanda Purana in section 1.8 states that all creatures have the signs of Shiva or Shakti through their lingam (male sexual organ) or pindi (female sexual organ).[12][57] According to Doniger, a part of the literature corpus regards lingam to be the phallus of Shiva, while another group of texts does not. Sexuality in the former is inherently sacred and spiritual, while the latter emphasizes the ascetic nature of Shiva and renunciation to be spiritual symbolism of lingam. This tension between the pursuit of spirituality through householder lifestyle and the pursuit of renunciate sannyasi lifestyle is historic, reflects the different interpretations of the lingam and what lingam worship means to its devotees. It remains a continuing debate within Hinduism to this day, states Doniger.[12] To one group, it is a part of Shiva's body and symbolically saguna Shiva (he in a physical form with attributes). To the other group, it is an abstract symbol of nirguna Shiva (he in the universal Absolute Reality, formless, without attributes).[12] In Tamil Shaiva tradition, for example, the common term for lingam is kuRi or "sign, mark" which is asexual.[12] Similarly, in Lingayatism tradition, the lingam is a spiritual symbol and "was never said to have any sexual connotations", according to Doniger.[12]

According to Dasgupta, the lingam symbolizes Shiva in Hinduism, and it is also a phallic symbol.[9]

Some extant ancient ligams, such as the Gudimallam Lingam, unambiguously depict a male sexual organ.

Sexualization in Orientalist literature

[edit]

Since the 19th century, states Dasgupta, the popular literature has represented the lingam as the male sex organ. This view contrasts with the traditional abstract values they represent in Shaivism wherein the lingam-yoni connote the masculine and feminine principles in the entirety of creation and all existence.[9]

The colonial era Orientalists and Christian missionaries, raised in the Victorian mold where sex and sexual imagery were a taboo subject, were shocked by and were hostile to the lingam-yoni iconography and reverence they witnessed.[9][58][59] The 19th and early 20th-century colonial and missionary literature described lingam-yoni, and related theology as obscene, corrupt, licentious, hyper-sexualized, puerile, impure, demonic and a culture that had become too feminine and dissolute.[9][60][61] To the Hindus, particularly the Shaivites, these icons and ideas were the abstract, a symbol of the entirety of creation and spirituality.[9] The colonial disparagement in part triggered the opposite reaction from Bengali nationalists, who more explicitly valorised the feminine. Swami Vivekananda called for the revival of the Mother Goddess as a feminine force, inviting his countrymen to "proclaim her to all the world with the voice of peace and benediction".[60]

According to Doniger, the terms lingam and yoni became explicitly associated with human sexual organs in the western imagination after the widely popular first Kamasutra translation by Sir Richard Burton in 1883.[62] In his translation, even though the original Sanskrit text does not use the words lingam or yoni for sexual organs, and almost always uses other terms, Burton adroitly avoided being viewed as obscene to the Victorian mindset by avoiding the use of words such as penis, vulva, vagina and other direct or indirect sexual terms in the Sanskrit text to discuss sex, sexual relationships and human sexual positions. Burton used the terms lingam and yoni instead throughout the translation.[62] This conscious and incorrect word substitution, states Doniger, thus served as an Orientalist means to "anthropologize sex, distance it, make it safe for English readers by assuring them, or pretending to assure them, that the text was not about real sexual organs, their sexual organs, but merely about the appendages of weird, dark people far away."[62] Similar Orientalist literature of the Christian missionaries and the British era, states Doniger, stripped all spiritual meanings and insisted on the Victorian vulgar interpretation only, which had "a negative effect on the self-perception that Hindus had of their own bodies" and they became "ashamed of the more sensual aspects of their own religious literature".[63] Some contemporary Hindus, states Doniger, in their passion to spiritualize Hinduism and for their Hindutva campaign have sought to sanitize the historic earthly sexual meanings, and insist on the abstract spiritual meaning only.[63]

Rejection

[edit]

The sexualization is criticized by Stella Kramrisch[64] and Moriz Winternitz who opines that the lingam in the Shiva tradition is "only a symbol of the productive and creative principle of nature as embodied in Shiva", and it has no historical trace in any obscene phallic cult.[65]

According to Alex Wayman, various works on Shaivism by some Indian authors, following the Shaiva philosophical texts and spiritual interpretations, "deny that the linga is a phallus."[66] To the Shaivites, a linga is neither a phallus nor do they practice the worship of erotic penis-vulva, rather the linga-yoni is a symbol of cosmic mysteries, the creative powers and the metaphor for the spiritual truths of their faith.[67]

According to Swami Sivananda, the correlation of the linga and phallus is wrong; the lingam is only the external symbol of Shiva's formless being. He further states that it is the light or power of consciousness, manifesting from Sadashiva.[68]

The popular belief is that the Siva Lingam represents the phallus or the virile organ, the emblem of the generative power or principle in nature. This is not only a serious mistake but a grave blunder. In the post-Vedic period, the Linga has become symbolic of the generative power of Lord Siva. Linga is the differentiating mark. It is certainly not the sex mark.[69]

Worship

[edit]
Badavlinga, Hampi (Vijayanagara Empire)
Linga-yoni worship in different ways; Left: river, Right: temple.

The traditional lingam rituals in major Shiva temples includes offerings of flowers, grass, dried rice, fruits, leaves, water and a milk bath.[1] Priests chant hymns, while the devotees go to the sanctum for a darshana followed by a clockwise circumambulation of the sanctum.[1] On the sanctum walls, typically are reliefs of Dakshinamurti, Brahma and Vishnu. Often, near the sanctum are other shrines, particularly for Shakti (Durga), Ganesha and Murugan (Kartikeya). In the Hindu tradition, special pilgrimage sites include those where natural lingams are found in the form of cylindrical rocks or ice or rocky hill. These are called Svayambhuva lingam, and about 70 of these are known on the Indian subcontinent, the most significant being one in Kashi (Varanasi) followed by Prayaga, Naimisha and Gaya.[1][70]

Historical development and meaning

[edit]

Archeological finds from Indus Valley civilisation

[edit]
Stone lingam and yoni pedestal found in Cát Tiên, Vietnam, circa 8th century. At 2.1 meter tall, this is the largest lingam ever found in Southeast Asia
A Buddhist stupa (above) may have influenced the later iconography of the Hindu Shiva-linga, according to Swami Vivekananda.[71][note 2]

The colonial-era archaeologists John Marshall and Ernest Mackay proposed that certain artifacts found at Harappan sites may be evidence of yoni-linga worship in Indus Valley Civilization.[73] Jones and Ryan state that lingam/yoni shapes have been recovered from the archaeological sites at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, part of the Indus Valley civilisation.[74][75] According to Chakravarti, "some of the stones found in Mohenjodaro are unmistakably phallic stones". These are dated to some time before 2300 BCE. Similarly, states Chakravarti, the Kalibangan site of Harappa has a small terracotta representation that "would undoubtedly be considered the replica of a modern Shivlinga [a tubular stone]."[76][77] According to Srinivasan, in the Harappan sites, objects that resemble "lingam" have been found.[78] That includes "a seated trident-headed ithyphallic figure", which was found on Indus seals, "has been compared to Shiva as meditating ascetic", states Srinivasan.[78][79]

According to Encyclopædia Britannica, while Harappan discoveries include "short cylindrical pillars with rounded tops", there is no evidence that the people of Indus Valley Civilization worshipped these artifacts as lingams.[1]

Scholars such as Arthur Llewellyn Basham dispute whether such artifacts discovered at the archaeological sites of Indus Valley sites are yoni.[73][80]

According to the Indologist Asko Parpola, "it is true that Marshall's and Mackay's hypotheses of linga and yoni worship by the Harappans has rested on rather slender grounds, and that for instance, the interpretation of the so-called ring-stones as yonis seems untenable".[73] He quotes Dales 1984 paper, which states "with the single exception of the unidentified photography of a realistic phallic object in Marshall's report, there is no archaeological evidence to support claims of special sexually-oriented aspects of Harappan religion".[73] However, adds Parpola, a re-examination at Indus Valley sites suggest that the Mackay's hypothesis cannot be ruled out because erotic and sexual scenes such as ithyphallic males, naked females, a human couple having intercourse and trefoil imprints have now been identified at the Harappan sites.[73] The "finely polished circular stand" found by Mackay may be yoni although it was found without the linga. The absence of linga, states Parpola, maybe because it was made from wood which did not survive.[73]

Indologist Wendy Doniger rejects Srinivasan's interpretation, and states that this relatively rare artifact can be interpreted in many ways and has unduly been used for wild speculations such as being a linga. Another Indus stamp seal often called the Pashupati seal, states Doniger, has an image with a general resemblance with Shiva and "the Indus people may well have created the symbolism of the divine phallus", but given the available evidence we cannot be certain, nor do we know that it had the same meaning as some currently project them to might have meant.[81]

Vedic texts

[edit]

Veda's

[edit]

The word lingam is not found in the Rigveda,[82] or the other Vedas.[83] However, Rudra (proto-Shiva) is found in the Vedic literature.[82][84]

Worship of the lingam was not a part of the Vedic religion. The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the Atharva Veda Samhita sung in praise of the Yupa-Stambha, the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless Stambha or Skambha, and it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman. Just as the Yajna (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the Soma plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga.[85][86] In the text Linga Purana, the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva.[86]

There is a hymn in the Atharvaveda that praises a pillar (stambha), and this is one possible origin of linga worship.[87] According to Swami Vivekananda, the Shiva-linga had origins in the idea of Yupa-Stambha or Skambha of the Vedic rituals, where the term meant the sacrificial post which was then idealized as the eternal Brahman. The Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga, quite possibly with influence from Buddhism's stupa shaped like the top of a stone linga, according to Vivekananda.[71][86]

Shvetashvatara Upanishad

[edit]

Shvetashvatara Upanishad states that, of the three significations of Lingam, the primary one is "the imperishable Purusha", the absolute reality,[20] whereby the linga is "sign", a mark that provides the existence of Brahman,[4][88] which is itself formless.[19] Furthermore, it mentioned that Shiva is transcendent, beyond any characteristic or liūga, specifically the sign of gender.[4] Linga, "sign", not only signifies the existence of perceptible "things" but also denotes the imperceptible essence of "a thing" or pieces of Brahman called Atma[88] even before that thing has come to exist in any concrete form.[note 3] The imperceptible essence of "a thing", in its potentiality, is the liūga of the thing.[4]

The insight of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad conveyed through the word liūga is formulated explicitly in Samkhya and schools of Yoga or ways of looking at things, that is, looking at their appearance and at Ultimate Reality.[4] Liriga here denotes the subtle body, (liṇga śarīra) underlying and ontologically preceding anything perceptible.[4] The perceptible state, in this context, is the gross body (sthūla śarīra), or concrete reality as it appears to the sense organs. In between the Ultimate and concrete reality is Prakṛti, also called Pradhana[4] which is the imperceptible substratum of the manifest world or pre-matter.[89] Out of this imperceptible cosmic substance, all things have come out, and to which they will return ultimately.[4]

Early iconography and temples (3rd century BCE - first mill. CE)

[edit]
Gudimallam Lingam
Linga inside a railing (left), being worshipped by Gandharvas winged creatures. Art of Mathura, circa 100 BCE.[90]

The Gudimallam Lingam, one of the oldest examples of a lingam, is still in worship in the Parashurameshwara temple, Gudimallam, in a hilly forest about 20 kilometres (12 mi) east of Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh.[91] It has been dated to the 3rd-century BCE,[1] or to the 2nd century BCE,[92] and is mostly accepted to be from the 3rd- to 1st-century BCE,[93] though some later dates have been proposed. The stone lingam is clearly a representation of an anatomically accurate phallus, with a figure of Lakulisha, the ascetic manifestation of Shiva,[78] carved on the front, holding an antelope and axe in his hands.[93][94] He stands on top of a Apasmara (demon) dwarf, who symbolizes spiritual ignorance, greed, sensual desires or Kama and nonsensical speech on the spiritual path, hence must be subdued in spiritual pursuits.[95][96][97]

In this earliest representation, the phallic representation illustrates the centrality of the energetic principle of Urdhva Retas (Sanskrit: ऊर्ध्वरेतस् IAST: Ūrdhvaretas, lit. "ascent of vital energies or fluid") the upward flow of energy in spiritual pursuits and practice of celibacy (Brahmacarya),[98] contrary to fertility or release of vital energies.[99][100][101][102][103] Lakulisa as an ascetic manifestation of Shiva is seen in later peninsular Indian scriptures whose ithyphallic aspects connotes asceticism and conserved procreative potentialities (Brahmacarya or celibacy), rather than mere eroticism.[78][104] According to Stella Kramrisch, the pictorial symbol of the Gudimallam lingam should not be mistaken for fertility or eroticism, due to incomplete or impure understanding of the underlying refined principles.[note 4][note 5][106]

Natural rock linga, Arunachal Pradesh

The Bhita linga – now at the Lucknow museum – is also dated to about the 2nd century BCE, and has four directional faces on the pillar and a Brahmi script inscription at the bottom.[107][108][109] Above the four faces, the Bhita linga has the bust of a male with his left hand holding a vase and the right hand in the abhaya (no-fear) mudra.[108][note 6] The pillar itself is, once again, a realistic depiction of phallus but neither symbolizes fertility nor sexuality, but the refined energetic principles of Urdhva Retas[note 7] during Sannyasa or Asceticism.[101][99][102][108][103]

The Mathura archaeological site has revealed similar lingams, with a standing Shiva in front (2nd century CE) and with one or four faces around the pillar (1st to 3rd century CE).[112][113]

Numerous stone and cave temples from the mid to late 1st millennium feature lingams. The Bhumara Temple near Satna Madhya Pradesh, for example, is generally dated to late 5th-century Gupta Empire era, and it features an Ekamukha Lingam.[114][115]

Epics and puranas

[edit]
See also: Itihasa-Purana

Mahabharata

[edit]

According to Wendy Doniger, lingam in the Mahabharata is represented as the phallic form which suggests Sthula sarira of Shiva,[93][116] although not the primary significance,[4] however it connotes much more than that.[117] The anthropomorphic shape, in this specific context, functions as the "subtle body" (Lińga Śarīra)[118] of Shiva in the Mahabharata.[117] It is a superabundant evocation of fierce potency on a cosmic scale, although it states crassly phallic.[117] Doniger further finds that Shiva was called by many names, including Rudra or the Lord of the Mountain.[93] Chapter 10.17 of the Mahabharata also refers to the word sthanu in the sense of an "inanimate pillar" as well as a "name of Shiva, signifying the immobile, ascetic, desexualized form of the lingam", as it recites the legend involving Shiva, Brahma and Prajapati.[93][119] This mythology weaves two polarities, one where the lingam represents the potentially procreative phallus (fertile lingam) and its opposite "a pillar-like renouncer of sexuality" (ascetic lingam), states Doniger.[93]

Puranas

[edit]

The Linga Purana (5th-10th century CE) states, "Shiva is signless, without color, taste, smell, that is beyond word or touch, without quality, motionless and changeless".[120] The source of the universe is the signless, and all of the universe is the manifested Linga, a union of unchanging principle and the ever changing nature.[120] The Linga Purana and Siva Gita texts builds on this foundation.[121][122] Linga, states Alain Daniélou, means sign.[120] It is an important concept in Hindu texts, wherein Linga is a manifested sign and nature of someone or something. It accompanies the concept of Brahman, which as invisible signless and existent Principle, is formless or linga-less.[120]

According to the Linga Purana, the lingam is a complete symbolic representation of the formless Universe Bearer – the oval-shaped stone is the symbol of the Universe, and the bottom base represents the Supreme Power that holds the entire Universe in it.[50] A similar interpretation is also found in the Skanda Purana: "The endless sky (that great void which contains the entire universe) is the Linga, the Earth is its base. At the end of time the entire universe and all the Gods finally merge in the Linga itself."[123] In the Linga Purana, an Atharvaveda hymn is expanded with stories about the great Stambha and the supreme nature of Mahâdeva (the Great God, Shiva).[86]

According to Shiva Purana (10th-11th c. CE), the legend about the origin of the phallic form of Shiva is that some brahmin devotees of Shiva were highly engrossed in the meditation of Shiva. In the meantime, Shiva came in a hideous naked ascetic form with ashes smeared all over his body holding his phallus, to test the devotion of his devotees. The wives of the sages were scared at this sight but some embraced the holy ascetic. Although Shiva put them to test, the sages and wives did not recognize him.[124] The sages were stupefied and deluded by Śiva's power of illusion, māyā,[124][125] became infuriated at this sight and cursed ascetic form of Shiva: [125] "You are acting pervertedly. This violates the Vedic path. Hence let your penis fall on the ground.”[note 8]

Lingodbhava is a Shaiva sectarian icon where Shiva is depicted rising from the Lingam (an infinite fiery pillar) that narrates how Shiva is the foremost of the Trimurti; Brahma on the left and Vishnu on the right are depicted bowing to Shiva in the centre.

The Shiva Purana also describes the origin of the lingam, known as Shiva-linga, as the beginning-less and endless cosmic pillar (Stambha) of fire, the cause of all causes. Shiva is pictured as emerging from the lingam – the cosmic pillar of fire – proving his superiority over the gods Brahma and Vishnu. It also describes right way to worship Shiva linga in its 11th chapter in detail [128][129][130] This is known as Lingodbhava. The Linga Purana also supports this interpretation of lingam as a cosmic pillar, symbolizing the infinite nature of Shiva.[130][71][86]

Muslim rule

[edit]

In the 11th-century, after conquests of the subcontinent by Muslim rulers, several sultans of Delhi, often iconoclastic, regarded the lingam as sexual and anthropomorphic, and ordered as many be destroyed as possible.[131] In some situations, linga were deliberately laid at the thresholds of mosques for public usage and incorporated into Islamic architecture, notably at a mosque in Banbhore.[132]

Lingayatism

[edit]
A necklace with linga-containing pendant is constantly worn by the Lingayats.[133]

Lingayats, a sect of the Shaivite religious tradition in India, wear a miniaturized linga called the istalinga.[134] Lingayats wear a lingam inside a necklace, called Ishtalinga.[135][136] Initially known as Veerashaivas (heroic worshippers of Shiva), since the 18th century adherents of this faith are known as Lingayats.[137] This tradition originated in Karnataka around the 12th-century.[135][138] Lingayatism is derived from the term linga and suffix ayta.[139] The term Lingayat is based on the practice of both genders of Lingayats wearing an iṣṭaliṅga (also called karasthala-linga) contained inside a box with a necklace all the time. The istalinga is a personalized and miniature oval-shaped linga and an emblem of their faith symbolising Parashiva, the absolute reality and their spirituality.[139][140] It is viewed as a "living, moving" divinity within the Lingayat devotee. Every day, the devotee removes this personal linga from its box, places it in left palm, offers puja and then meditates about becoming one with the linga, in his or her journey towards the atma-linga.[141]

Pilgrimage sites

[edit]

An ice lingam at Amarnath in the western Himalayas forms every winter from ice dripping on the floor of a cave and freezing like a stalagmite. It is very popular with pilgrims.[142]

Left: 2 sphatika (quartz) lingams in the Shri Parkasheshwar Mahadev Temple, Dehradun; Right: Ice Lingam in the cave at the Amarnath Temple, Kashmir.

In Kadavul Temple, a 700-pound, 3-foot-tall, naturally formed Sphatika (quartz) lingam is installed. In the future, this crystal lingam will be housed in the Iraivan Temple. It is claimed as among the largest known sphatika self formed (Swayambhu) lingams.[143][144] Hindu scripture rates crystal as the highest form of Shiva lingam.[145]

Shivling, 6,543 metres (21,467 ft), is a mountain in Uttarakhand (the Garhwal region of Himalayas). It arises as a sheer pyramid above the snout of the Gangotri Glacier. The mountain resembles a Shiva lingam when viewed from certain angles, especially when travelling or trekking from Gangotri to Gomukh as part of a traditional Hindu pilgrimage.[citation needed]

A lingam is also the basis for the formation legend (and name) of the Borra Caves in Andhra Pradesh.[citation needed]

Banalinga are the lingam which are found on the bed of the Narmada River.[146]

Lesser known Bhooteshwarnath Mahadeva in Gariaband district of Chhattisgarh is a rock Shivlinga and said to be the Largest Natural Shivlinga in the world.,[147] whose height is increasing with each passing year.[148][149]

The tallest Shiva lingam in the world is located at Chenkal village in Thiruvananthapuram district in the state of Kerala, India.[150]

[edit]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Examples of this usage include the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra in Buddhism, and Sukhlalji's bhasya on Tattvarthasutra in Jainism.[31]
  2. ^ This view is shared by K.R. Subramanian, who writes that some Buddhist stupas have been worshipped by Tamil Saivites because they believe it is a Shivalinga, and some ancient stupa sculptures from Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta look so much like a linga that anyone would mistake them for one.[72]
  3. ^ The form of fire, which exists in the kindling stick in a latent form, may not be seen, yet its linga is not destroyed but be seized again by another kindling stick.[4] Fire in its latent condition, unkindled, the potential of fire, its imperceptible essence, is the liūga of fire, in contrast with and indispensable to its visible form (Rūpa).[4]
  4. ^ Kramrisch claims that the representation of the phallic shape in the Gudimallam Lingam does not represent sexuality.[151] It represents "seminal retention" and practice of celibacy (Brahmacarya) (illustration of Urdhva Retas),[101][99][111][152] and represents Shiva as "he stands for complete control of the senses, and for the supreme carnal renunciation".[151]
  5. ^ Furthermore, the phallic shape, standing erect, always negates its function as an organ of procreation. Rather, the shape or pictorial representation is conveying that, the seed was channeled upward, not ejected for the sake of generation, but was reversed, retained and absorbed for regeneration as creative energy.[105]
  6. ^ This linga is likely a dedication memorial stone according to the inscription which states, "The Linga of the sons of Khajahuti, was dedicated by Nagasiri, the son of Vasethi. May the deity be pleased."[108] Bloch objected to "Linga of the sons" interpretation, stating it made no sense. Other scholars maintain that to be a cryptic epigraphic reference to "worshipped by", given the mention of "deity" later in the inscription.[109][110]
  7. ^ In the practice of seminal retention through self-discipline and Sādhanā, the mind is stirred, but not by external stimuli, but the result of realisation of true nature of the Self in the path of liberation (moksha). However, due to lack of understanding of the iconography of Lingam, the representation is often misunderstood.[111][99]
  8. ^ Although the sages were also ascetics, only because they observed established conventions, they failed when Shiva tested them with his outrageous ways.[124] The purpose of Shiva's visit to the hermitage, the place where the sages were living with their wives, was to enlighten the false sages by allowing them to humiliate him.[126] But the sages were lost in anger, but Shiva allowed himself to be humiliated in the image that met the eye of the sages.[126] Even though Shiva excited some of them as the source of their desire, they were unable to see him as the killer of desires.[127] Although Shiva revealed his true nature by his dance (Tandava), yet so great was his power of illusion (māyā), the deluded sages did not recognize him.[127] That falling phallus burnt everything in front; wherever it went it began to burn everything there. It went to all three Hindu worlds (hell, heaven, earth). All the worlds and the people were distressed. The sages could not recognise it as Shiva and sought refuge from Brahma. Brahma answered that they should pray to Parvati to assume a form of vaginal passage, and perform a procedure reciting vedic mantras and decorating the penis with flowers etc., so that the penis would become steady. As the phallus was held by Parvati in that form, an auspicion arrow formed. The pedestal shaped as the vagina and the phallus fixed therein are symbolic of the eternal creative forces personified as Śivā and Śiva. After the procedure was completed, the penis became static. This phallus was known as "hatesa" and "Siva Siva".[125] In one version of the story found in Vamana Purana, Shiva's visit to the hermitage in Deodar forests was an act of grace at Parvati's request.[124]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n "lingam". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Archived from the original on 4 May 2015. Retrieved 23 June 2022.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Linga Archived 18 March 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Monier Monier-Williams, Harvard University Archives, pp. 901-902 Archived 11 March 2020 at the Wayback Machine
  3. ^ a b c Yves Bonnefoy (1993). Asian Mythologies. University of Chicago Press. pp. 38–39. ISBN 978-0-226-06456-7. Archived from the original on 24 April 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Kramrisch 1994, p. 221.
  5. ^ a b c Gerrit Jan Meulenbeld; D. Wujastyk (2001). Studies on Indian Medical History. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 49–51 with footnotes. ISBN 978-81-208-1768-5. Archived from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2018.
  6. ^ a b c Gerald James Larson (2001). Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 189–192, 270–271. ISBN 978-81-208-0503-3. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2018.
  7. ^ a b Kramrisch 1994, p. 217.
  8. ^ a b c Subramuniyaswami, Sivaya (2003). Dancing with Siva. USA: Himalayan Academy. ISBN 978-0-945497-94-3.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g Rohit Dasgupta (26 September 2014). Michael Kimmel; Christine Milrod; Amanda Kennedy (eds.). Cultural Encyclopedia of the Penis. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 107. ISBN 9780759123144. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
  10. ^ a b c Beltz, Johannes (1 March 2011). "The Dancing Shiva: South Indian Processional Bronze, Museum Artwork, and Universal Icon". Journal of Religion in Europe. 4 (1). Brill Academic Publishers: 204–222. doi:10.1163/187489210x553566. S2CID 143631560.
  11. ^ a b c d Doniger, Wendy; Stefon, Matt (24 December 2014) [20 July 1998]. "Lingam (Hinduism)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Edinburgh: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Archived from the original on 11 October 2016. Retrieved 22 May 2021.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g Doniger 2011, pp. 493–498.
  13. ^ Grimes 1996, p. 17.
  14. ^ a b James G. Lochtefeld (2001). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 2. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 784. ISBN 978-0-8239-3180-4. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 22 May 2021.
  15. ^ Johnson, W.J. (2009). A dictionary of Hinduism (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191726705. Archived from the original on 18 March 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2016.(subscription or UK public library membership required)
  16. ^ Fowler, Jeaneane (1997). Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices. Brighton: Sussex Academic Press. pp. 42–43. ISBN 978-1-898723-60-8.
  17. ^ a b James G. Lochtefeld (2001). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 1. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 390. ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8. Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
  18. ^ [4][5][6][1][2][3]
  19. ^ a b Mansingh, Ajai (2016). "Stewards of Creation Covenant: Hinduism and the Environment". Caribbean Quarterly. 41 (1). A Journal of Caribbean Culture: 62. doi:10.1080/00086495.1995.11672075. Archived from the original on 7 September 2021. Retrieved 7 September 2021.
  20. ^ a b Constance & James 2006, p. 410.
  21. ^ Lewis R. Rambo; Charles E. Farhadian (2014). The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversion. Oxford University Press. pp. 332–333. ISBN 978-0-19-971354-7. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
  22. ^ Wadher, Rupesh; Dwivedi, RambabuR (2012). "Applicability and importance of Caraka′s concept of Aaturaparijnana Hetawah in understanding a patient". AYU. 33 (2): 188–192. doi:10.4103/0974-8520.105236. PMC 3611657. PMID 23559788., Quote: "Linga or Symptomatology: Linga acquires the second position in the Tri Sutra. It includes entire signs and symptoms of the diseases and health also. Only the knowledge of Hetu is not sufficient for the diagnosis of Aaturavastha. Hence Linga or the symptomatology is very useful tool in the diagnosis of a disease."
  23. ^ Thakar VJ (1982). "Diagnostic methods in ayurveda". Anc Sci Life. 1 (3): 139–45. PMC 3336683. PMID 22556480.
  24. ^ Junjarwad, Ashwini; Savalgi, Pavan; Vyas, Mahesh (2013). "Critical review on Bhaishajya Kaala (time of drug administration) in Ayurveda". AYU. 34 (1): 6–10. doi:10.4103/0974-8520.115436. PMC 3764882. PMID 24049398.
  25. ^ Peter M. Scharf (1996). The Denotation of Generic Terms in Ancient Indian Philosophy: Grammar, Nyāya, and Mīmāṃsā. American Philosophical Society. pp. 66, 136 with footnotes. ISBN 978-0-87169-863-6. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2018.
  26. ^ Hartmut Scharfe (1977). Grammatical Literature. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 105–106. ISBN 978-3-447-01706-0. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2018.
  27. ^ Satis Chandra Vidyabhusana (1988). A History of Indian Logic: Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern Schools. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 377, 510–511. ISBN 978-81-208-0565-1.
  28. ^ Wilhelm Halbfass (1991). Tradition and Reflection: Explorations in Indian Thought. State University of New York Press. pp. 159–161. ISBN 978-1-4384-0546-9. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2018.
  29. ^ James W. Haag; Gregory R. Peterson; Michael L. Spezio (2012). The Routledge Companion to Religion and Science. Routledge. pp. 503–504. ISBN 978-1-136-63417-8. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2018.
  30. ^ Alex Wayman (1987). "O, that Linga!". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 68 (1/4): 19–20.
  31. ^ a b Alex Wayman (1987). "O, that Linga!". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 68 (1/4): 17, 22–25.
  32. ^ a b c d T. A. Gopinatha Rao (1993). Elements of Hindu Iconography Volume 2. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 76. ISBN 978-81-208-0877-5. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  33. ^ Andrew David Hardy; Mauro Cucarzi; Patrizia Zolese (2009). Champa and the Archaeology of Mỹ Sơn (Vietnam). NUS Press. p. NUS Press. pp. 138, 159. ISBN 978-9971-69-451-7.
  34. ^ Pratapaditya Pal (1985). Art of Nepal: A Catalogue of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art Collection. University of California Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-520-05407-3.
  35. ^ Stella Kramrisch (1994). Exploring India'S Sacred Art Selected Writings of Stella Kramrisch Ed. & With A Biographical Essay. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 141–147. ISBN 978-81-208-1208-6.
  36. ^ T. A. Gopinatha Rao (1993). Elements of Hindu Iconography Volume 2. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 97–99. ISBN 978-81-208-0877-5. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  37. ^ N. S. Ramaswami (1976). Monograph on temples of Mukhalingam. Government of Andhra Pradesh. pp. 1–9. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
  38. ^ Mahadev Chakravarti (1986). The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through the Ages. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 159–161. ISBN 978-81-208-0053-3. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
  39. ^ S. Kramrisch (1994). The Presence of Siva. Princeton University Press. pp. 178–183. ISBN 0-691-01930-4. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  40. ^ T. A. Gopinatha Rao (1993). Elements of Hindu Iconography Volume 2. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 95–96. ISBN 978-81-208-0877-5. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  41. ^ T. A. Gopinatha Rao (1993). Elements of Hindu Iconography Volume 2. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 96–97. ISBN 978-81-208-0877-5. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  42. ^ T. A. Gopinatha Rao (1993). Elements of Hindu Iconography Volume 2. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 96–98. ISBN 978-81-208-0877-5. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  43. ^ T. A. Gopinatha Rao (1993). Elements of Hindu Iconography Volume 2. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 99–100. ISBN 978-81-208-0877-5. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  44. ^ T. A. Gopinatha Rao (1993). Elements of Hindu Iconography Volume 2. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 87–94. ISBN 978-81-208-0877-5. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  45. ^ Christopher John Fuller (2004). The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India. Princeton University Press. p. 58. ISBN 9780691120485. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 24 September 2016.
  46. ^ Constance & James 2006, p. 260-261.
  47. ^ Constance & James 2006, p. 515-517.
  48. ^ Grimes 1996, p. 175-176.
  49. ^ "Dictionary of Dancing with Siva". Search for the 'Paraśiva: परशिव' and 'Parāśakti: पराशक्ति'. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 10 July 2018.
  50. ^ a b c Sivananda, Swami (1996). "Worship of Siva Linga". Lord Siva and His Worship. The Divine Life Trust Society. Archived from the original on 18 February 2018. Retrieved 8 December 2008.
  51. ^ Susan Bayly (2003). Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society, 1700-1900. Cambridge University Press. pp. 129–130 with footnote 55. ISBN 978-0-521-89103-5. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  52. ^ Dominic Goodall, Nibedita Rout, R. Sathyanarayanan, S.A.S. Sarma, T. Ganesan and S. Sambandhasivacarya, The Pañcāvaraṇastava of Aghoraśivācārya: A twelfth-century South Indian prescription for the visualisation of Sadāśiva and his retinue, Pondicherry, French Institute of Pondicherry and Ecole française d'Extréme-Orient, 2005, p.12.
  53. ^ O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger (1981). Śiva, the erotic ascetic. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-520250-3.
  54. ^ O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger (2013). On Hinduism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199360079.
  55. ^ O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger (2009). The Hindus: An Alternative History. United States: Viking Press. ISBN 978-0143116691.
  56. ^ Rohit Dasgupta (26 September 2014). Michael Kimmel; Christine Milrod; Amanda Kennedy (eds.). Cultural Encyclopedia of the Penis. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 107. ISBN 9780759123144. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
  57. ^ J. L. Brockington (2016). Hinduism and Christianity. Springer. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-349-22280-3. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  58. ^ Douglas T. McGetchin (2009). Indology, Indomania, and Orientalism: Ancient India's Rebirth in Modern Germany. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-8386-4208-5.
  59. ^ Doniger 2011, p. 500, Quote: "The British missionaries most despised what they regarded as the obscene idolatry of the lingam. The British in general, who were of course Victorian in every sense of the word, regarded the Hindus, as they regarded most colonized people of color, as simultaneously oversexed and impotent, and the British presence had a negative effect on the self-perception that Hindus had of their own bodies (Nandy 1983). For, still reeling from the onslaught of the Muslim campaigns against lingams, the Hindus who worked with and for the British internalized their colonizers' scorn."
  60. ^ a b Imma Ramos (2017). Pilgrimage and Politics in Colonial Bengal: The Myth of the Goddess Sati. Taylor & Francis. pp. 56–58. ISBN 978-1-351-84000-2. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  61. ^ Hugh B. Urban (2009). The Power of Tantra: Religion, Sexuality and the Politics of South Asian Studies. I.B.Tauris. pp. 8–10. ISBN 978-0-85773-158-6. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  62. ^ a b c Doniger 2011, pp. 500–502.
  63. ^ a b Doniger 2011, pp. 499–505.
  64. ^ Kramrisch 1994, p. 14.
  65. ^ Winternitz, Moriz; V. Srinivasa Sarma (1981). A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 543 footnote 4. ISBN 978-81-208-0264-3. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 2 July 2021.
  66. ^ Alex Wayman (1987). "O, that Linga!". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 68 (1/4): 30., Quote: "That is why today one will read in various works by Indians on Saivism a denial that the linga is a phallus; and the late Dr. Basham once told the present writer that in all the years of his India contacts he never found any Saivite admitting that the linga is a phallus."
  67. ^ Alex Wayman (1987). "O, that Linga!". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 68 (1/4): 29–31.
  68. ^ Lord Shiva and His Worship by Sri Swami Sivananda (1945), Chapter IX: Siva Yoga Sadhna, Section 7: Worship of Siva Lingam, 2015 edition, Allahabad Book World Ltd.
  69. ^ Lord Shiva and His Worship by Sri Swami Sivananda (1945), Chapter IX: Siva Yoga Sadhna, Section 7: Worship of Siva Lingam, Page 220, 2015 edition, Allahabad Book World Ltd.
  70. ^ T. A. Gopinatha Rao (1993). Elements of Hindu Iconography Volume 2. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 81–84. ISBN 978-81-208-0877-5. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  71. ^ a b c Harding, Elizabeth U. (1998). "God, the Father". Kali: The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 156–157. ISBN 978-81-208-1450-9.
  72. ^ Subramanian K R (2002). Origin of Saivism and Its History in the Tamil Land. Asian Educational Services. pp. 29–30. ISBN 978-81-206-0144-4. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 3 October 2018.
  73. ^ a b c d e f Asko Parpola (1985). "The Sky Garment - A study of the Harappan religion and its relation to the Mesopotamian and later Indian religions". Studia Orientalia. 57. The Finnish Oriental Society: 101–107.
  74. ^ Constance & James 2006, p. 516.
  75. ^ Jyotsna Chawla (1990). The R̥gvedic deities and their iconic forms. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. p. 185. ISBN 9788121500821. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  76. ^ Chakravarti 1986.
  77. ^ Lipner, Julius J. (2017). Hindu Images and Their Worship with Special Reference to Vaisnavism: A Philosophical-theological Inquiry. London; New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. p. 39. ISBN 9781351967822. OCLC 985345208. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2017.
  78. ^ a b c d Srinivasan 2004, p. 434.
  79. ^ Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1998). Ancient Cities of the Indus Vally Civilization. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195779400. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 7 September 2021.
  80. ^ Arthur Llewellyn Basham (1967). The Wonder that was India: A Survey of the History and Culture of the Indian Subcontinent Before the Coming of the Muslims. Sidgwick & Jackson (1986 Reprint). p. 24. ISBN 978-0-283-99257-5. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018., Quote: "It has been suggested that certain large ring-shaped stones are formalized representations of the female regenerative organ and were symbols of the Mother Goddess, but this is most doubtful."
  81. ^ Doniger 2011, pp. 485–502.
  82. ^ a b Doniger 2011, pp. 489–502.
  83. ^ Ellwood Austin Welden (1910). "The Samkhya Term, Linga". The American Journal of Philology. 31 (4). The Johns Hopkins University Press: 445–459. doi:10.2307/288521. JSTOR 288521.
  84. ^ Charles Phillips; Michael Kerrigan; David Gould (2011). Ancient India Myths and Beliefs. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 41–45. ISBN 978-1-4488-5990-0. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
  85. ^ Harding, Elizabeth U. (1998). "God, the Father". Kali: The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 156–157. ISBN 978-81-208-1450-9.
  86. ^ a b c d e Vivekananda, Swami. "The Paris congress of the history of religions". The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda. Vol. 4. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 30 September 2008.
  87. ^ Singh, Nagendra Kr. (1997). Encyclopaedia of Hinduism (1st ed.). New Delhi: Centre for International Religious Studies. p. 1567. ISBN 9788174881687.[permanent dead link‍]
  88. ^ a b DeVito & DeVito 1994, p. 5.
  89. ^ Kramrisch 1994, p. 122.
  90. ^ Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. p. 435. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
  91. ^ John Guy (2007). Indian Temple Sculpture. Harry N. Abrams. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-85177-509-5. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  92. ^ Klostermaier, Klaus K. (2007). A Survey of Hinduism (3. ed.). Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-7914-7082-4. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 24 September 2016.
  93. ^ a b c d e f Doniger 2011, pp. 491–493.
  94. ^ Elgood, Heather (2000). Hinduism and the Religious Arts. London: Cassell. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-8264-9865-6. Archived from the original on 15 January 2023. Retrieved 24 September 2016.
  95. ^ T. A. Gopinatha Rao (1997). Elements of Hindu Iconography. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 223–229, 237. ISBN 978-81-208-0877-5. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  96. ^ Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja), Chola period, c. 10th/11th century Archived 15 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine The Art Institute of Chicago, United States
  97. ^ P. Arundhati (2002). Annapurna : A Bunch of Flowers of Indian Culture. Concept. pp. 40–45. ISBN 978-81-7022-897-4. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  98. ^ Ghurye, G.S. (1952). "Ascetic Origins". Sociological Bulletin. 1 (2). Sociological Bulletin, 1(2): 162–184. doi:10.1177/0038022919520206. S2CID 220049343.
  99. ^ a b c d Pensa, Corrado. "Some Internal and Comparative Problems in the Field of Indian Religions." Problems and Methods of the History of Religions. Brill, 1972. 102-122.
  100. ^ "Urdhvaretas, Urdhvaretās, Ūrdhvaretas, Urdhva-retas: 7 definitions". www.wisdomlib.org. 9 September 2014. Archived from the original on 15 July 2021. Retrieved 15 July 2021.
  101. ^ a b c Kramrisch 1994, p. 26.
  102. ^ a b Swami Agehananda Bharati (1970). The Tantric Tradition. Red Wheel/Weiser. p. 294. ISBN 0877282536.
  103. ^ a b Devdutt Pattanaik (2018). Shiva to Shankara: Giving Form to the Formless. HarperCollins. pp. 13–14. ISBN 9789352641956.
  104. ^ O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger. "Asceticism and Sexuality in the Mythology of Śiva. Part I." History of Religions 8, no. 4 (1969): 300-37. Accessed September 7, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1062019 Archived 30 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
  105. ^ Kramrisch 1994, p. 555.
  106. ^ Kramrisch 1994, p. 238.
  107. ^ S. Kramrisch (1994). The Presence of Siva. Princeton University Press. p. 179. ISBN 0-691-01930-4. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  108. ^ a b c d T. A. Gopinatha Rao (1993). Elements of Hindu Iconography, Volume 2. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 63–67. ISBN 978-81-208-0877-5. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  109. ^ a b Mahadev Chakravarti (1986). The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through the Ages. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 131–133. ISBN 978-81-208-0053-3. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
  110. ^ C. Sivaramamurti (1977). L'Art en Inde. H. N. Abrams. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-8109-0630-3.
  111. ^ a b Pattanaik, Devdutt. Shiva to Shankara: Decoding the phallic symbol. Indus Source, 2006.
  112. ^ Govind Sadashiv Ghurye (1966). Indian Costume. Popular Prakashan. pp. xvi, xlvii. ISBN 978-81-7154-403-5. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  113. ^ Shashi Asthana (1999). Mathurā Kalā: Catalogue of Mathura Sculptures in National Museum. National Museum of India. pp. 23–28. ISBN 978-81-85832-10-4. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  114. ^ Frederick M. Asher (1980). The Art of Eastern India: 300 - 800. University of Minnesota Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-4529-1225-7. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  115. ^ Michael W. Meister (1984). Discourses on Siva. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 494. ISBN 978-0-8122-7909-2. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  116. ^ Kramrisch 1994, p. 220-222.
  117. ^ a b c Kramrisch 1994, p. 222.
  118. ^ Grimes 1996, p. 176.
  119. ^ Alf Hiltebeitel (2018). Freud's Mahabharata. Oxford University Press. pp. 123–124, footnote 179. ISBN 978-0-19-087834-4. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  120. ^ a b c d Alain Daniélou (1991). The Myths and Gods of India. Princeton Bollingen Series. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co. pp. 222–224. ISBN 978-0-89281-354-4.
  121. ^ Kramrisch 1994, pp. 171–185.
  122. ^ K.V., Anantharaman. "Chapter X - Omnipotence of Siva Linga". Siva Gita A Critical Study. hdl:10603/295754. Archived from the original on 30 December 2021. Retrieved 16 July 2021.
  123. ^ "Reading the Vedic Literature in Sanskrit". is1.mum.edu. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 2 June 2017.
  124. ^ a b c d Kramrisch 1994, p. 206.
  125. ^ a b c "The reason for Śiva's assuming the phallic form (liṅga) [Chapter 12]". www.wisdomlib.org. 29 October 2018. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
  126. ^ a b Kramrisch 1994, p. 207.
  127. ^ a b Kramrisch 1994, p. 207-208.
  128. ^ "Mode of worshiping the phallic form of Śiva and making gifts [Chapter 11]". www.wisdomlib.org. 19 August 2018. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
  129. ^ Chaturvedi (2004). Shiv Purana (2006 ed.). Diamond Pocket Books. p. 11. ISBN 978-81-7182-721-3. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
  130. ^ a b Blurton, T. R. (1992). "Stone statue of Shiva as Lingodbhava". Extract from Hindu art (London, The British Museum Press). British Museum site. Archived from the original on 6 July 2010. Retrieved 2 July 2010.
  131. ^ Doniger 2011, pp. 498–499: "But several of the Delhi sultans, those who were particularly devout and iconoclast Muslims, regarded the lingam as sexual and anthropomorphic, and took pride in destroying as many lingams as they could. In 1026, Mahmud of Ghazni attacked the temple of Somnath, which held a famous Shiva lingam; this much, at least, seems to be historical fact. But then comes the mythologizing. According to some versions of the story, including early Turko-Persian triumphalist sources, Mahmud stripped the great gilded lingam of its gold and hacked it to bits with his sword, sending the bits back to Ghazni, where they were incorporated into the steps of the new mosque (Keay 2000: 207–209). Medieval Hindu epics of resistance created a countermythology in which the stolen image came to life (another bit of evidence that it was regarded as a living thing, a body in itself) and eventually, like a horse trotting back to the stable, returned to the temple to be reconsecrated (Davis 1997: 90–112)"
  132. ^ Mehrdad Shokoohy (2013). Muslim Architecture of South India. Routledge. pp. 17–18. ISBN 978-1-136-49984-5. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
  133. ^ Olson 2007, p. 244.
  134. ^ McCormack 1963, pp. 59–62.
  135. ^ a b Dalal 2010, p. 208-209.
  136. ^ Olson 2007, p. 239–240.
  137. ^ Schouten 1995, pp. 71–72.
  138. ^ Schouten 1995, p. 6.
  139. ^ a b L.K.A. Iyer (1965). The Mysore. Mittal Publications. pp. 81–82. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 3 October 2018.
  140. ^ Blake Michael 1992, pp. 22, 82–83.
  141. ^ Joanne Punzo Waghorne; Norman Cutler; Vasudha Narayanan (1996). Gods of Flesh, Gods of Stone: The Embodiment of Divinity in India. Columbia University Press. pp. 184 note 15. ISBN 978-0-231-10777-8. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023. Retrieved 3 October 2018.
  142. ^ "Amarnath: Journey to the shrine of a Hindu god". Boston.com. 13 July 2012. Archived from the original on 8 July 2017. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
  143. ^ under the section "General Introduction". "Kadavul Hindu Temple". Himalayanacademy. Archived from the original on 28 June 2018. Retrieved 15 February 2018.
  144. ^ "Iraivan Temple in the News". Archived from the original on 28 June 2018. Retrieved 15 February 2018.
  145. ^ "Rare Crystal Siva Lingam Arrives at Hawaii Temple". hinduismtoday. Archived from the original on 28 June 2018. Retrieved 15 February 2018.
  146. ^ Nadkarni, Vithal C. (4 April 2013). "Stones brook no contest". The Economic Times. ISSN 0013-0389. Archived from the original on 6 October 2023. Retrieved 24 September 2023.
  147. ^ "यहां है विश्व का सबसे बड़ा प्राकृतिक शिवलिंग". 16 January 2015. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  148. ^ "Bhuteshwar Shivling". news.yahoo.com. Archived from the original on 30 June 2018.
  149. ^ "Shivling in Chhattisgarh". 18 December 2015. Archived from the original on 30 June 2018. Retrieved 30 June 2018.
  150. ^ "Tallest Shiva lingam in country enters India book of records | Thiruvananthapuram News - Times of India". The Times of India. TNN. 10 January 2019. Archived from the original on 30 June 2021. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
  151. ^ a b Kramrisch 1994, p. 218.
  152. ^ Ghurye, G.S., 1952. Ascetic Origins. Sociological Bulletin, 1(2), pp.162-184.

Bibliography

[edit]
[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to Lingam.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lingam.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lingam&oldid=1255952733"