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Hula Lake

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Hula Lake
אגמון החולה
Hula Lake
LocationNorthern Israel
TypeFresh water lake
Basin countriesIsrael
Max. length5.5 km
Max. width4.5 km
Max. depth6 meters

Hula Lake (also known as Somchi sea, Sovechi sea, or Water of Merom) was a freshwater lake in the southern part of the Hula Valley in northern Israel. The lake, located on Great Syrian-African rift, was part of the Jordan River system and was drained in the 1950s.[1] The lake covered an area of about 14 square kilometers, with marshes to the north covering an additional 30 square kilometers, and further areas that were flooded in the winter, expanding the marshlands.

The lake and its marshes served as an important habitat for a wide variety of plants and animals, many of which are endemic to the area. During the British Mandate period and up until the 1950s, fishing and agricultural activities took place around the lake, and the impact of human settlement caused significant changes to the lake's ecosystem.

In the 1950s, the lake was drained as part of a national project aimed at expanding agricultural land and reducing the incidence of malaria in the region. This move sparked significant public debate due to its environmental and ecological impacts. In recent years, efforts have been made to partially restore the lake and to revive some of the biological diversity that once characterized the area.

Today, the Hula region serves as an important natural and tourist site, attracting visitors from all over the world. Visitor centers provide information and guidance on the lake's history and ecology.

Hulah Lake and Mount Hermon from the Safad road, 1946

Formation and evolution

[edit]

Lake Hula was formed in a depression that is part of the Syrian-African Rift. At the end of the Pliocene and the beginning of the Pleistocene, there was a lake in this location that was connected at times to other lakes to the south, in the area of the modern-day Sea of Galilee. During a relatively dry period about 450,000 years ago, the lake's water level dropped, and a marsh developed.[2][3]

Members of Kibbutz Hulata, bringing in reeds cut on the northern shore of lake Hula.

The unique landscape of the Hula Valley as we know it today was largely shaped by the tectonic uplift of the Korazim Plateau on one hand, and the sinking of the Hula Valley Graben on the other. The uplift of the Korazim Plateau, which lies to the south of the Hula Valley and is covered at the top with basalt, created a barrier between it and the Sea of Galilee, with its peak at about 270 meters above the level of the Sea of Galilee. The basalt on the Korazim Plateau predates its uplift and the blocking of the valley. As a result, the depression began to fill with water again, forming a large lake that at its peak likely extended to the 200-meter contour above sea level, with a depth of about 150 meters.[3]

At some point, due to fault activity, a narrow opening began to form in the barrier, near today's Bnot Ya'akov Bridge, creating the Jordan River channel through which the lake's waters drained towards the Sea of Galilee. Over the years, the lake shrank due to the deepening of the Jordan River's outlet to the south, a decrease in rainfall during certain periods, and infilling with river sediment.[3]

The flat area north of the lake gradually turned into a marsh, with parts of it drying in the summer and flooding in the winter. About 3,000 years ago, the lake's level stabilized at 67-69 meters above sea level, and its depth decreased to just a few meters, as it remained until it was drained in the twentieth century.[3]

Naming

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In the Bible, there is no explicit mention of Lake Hula. There are Jewish and Christian traditions that identify it with Mei Merom, the site of the battle between Joshua Bin Nun and the coalition of Canaanite kings.[4] However, archaeologist John Garstang disagreed with this identification and, after a thorough analysis of the area compared to the biblical description, concluded that Mei Merom should be identified with the Maroun al-Ras area in Lebanon.[5] This identification has been accepted by many researchers of the Land of Israel and biblical commentators, including Joseph Braslavi, Yehezkel Kaufmann, and others. Nevertheless, some still use this name today as a reference to Lake Hula.

In the writings of Josephus, the lake is called Semachonites, translated to "Semechon Lake," and also Ulatha.[6] In the Talmud, the lake is referred to as "Yama Shel Sibbchi" and in other versions as Yam Sovecho, Yam Somchi, or Yam Somcho,[7] and in the Jerusalem Talmud, it is mentioned as Yam Shel Somcho and in other versions Yam Sibbcho or Yam Sovechi.[8] Commentators suggest that the names derive from the dense vegetation of the marsh or the abundance of fish in the lake (the word "samak" in Arabic means "fish").

The name "Yama Dechulata" is mentioned once in the Jerusalem Talmud,[9] and in the Babylonian Talmud, there is also the version "Yama Shel Chilat" and "Yama Shel Chilata".[7] Additionally, the "Chulata" region is noted as one of the territories given by Augustus Caesar to Herod. It is believed that the name originates from the word "Chilat," likely the name of a type of reed, rush, or bulrush. The Arabic name "Bahirat al-Hula" likely derives from this name and is first mentioned in the writings of medieval Arab geographers. Other names for the lake used by Muslims in the Middle Ages include "Bahirat Qadesh" (Lake Qadesh) after the ancient city of Qadesh nearby to the west, as well as "Yamat Banias" and "Bahirat al-Kheit". The Crusaders called it "Lake Melaha".[10]

History

[edit]

The lake and the surrounding swamps have historically posed obstacles to development, both due to the terrain and the diseases prevalent in the area. For these reasons, there were only a few small settlements near the lake, and larger cities were established at a distance and at higher elevations, such as Hatzor and Banias.

Josephus describes the lake with dimensions similar to those in the 20th century, and the extensive swamps to its north: "...The breadth of this river is thirty ris and its length sixty, and its lakes stretch as far as Daphne, where there is a land of water springs, from which flows the river called the Little Jordan".[11]

The settlement of Tella, mentioned as the border of Upper Galilee by Josephus,[12] is identified with the Arab village of Tellil, located near present-day Yesod HaMa'ala, where remains of a Jewish settlement from the Roman period have been found. However, apart from this, there were likely not many settlements near the lake, except in the northern part of the Hula Valley. This situation persisted for centuries.

Around 725, Saint Willibald arrived in the Land of Israel and found water buffalo roaming near Lake Hula.[13]

In the 19th century, the areas of the swamps and floodplains were settled by the Ghawarna tribe, who lived by herding goats and buffaloes, growing rice and wheat, and weaving reed mats. At that time, Moses Reisher described the lake as follows: "A long river journey of three hours and a wide journey of one hour. On its banks, there are many forests and many wild animals. In the summer, it dries up mostly where the Jordan flows through it. And in the month of Nisan, it is filled with water from the melting snow of Lebanon, its waters being very murky."[14]

Despite the difficult terrain, Jews from Safed and Rosh Pina began to recognize the economic potential of the lake and the surrounding lands. David Shuv, one of the founders of Rosh Pina, noted that "the waters of the lake are sufficient to irrigate all the land around. Fish are abundant in the lake - go down to the water and catch as much as you wish... the land around the lake is fertile and rich."

This interest led the Abbo family from Safed to purchase land on the southwestern shore of the lake. However, due to the prevalence of malaria and blackwater fever near the lake, the people of Rosh Pina cultivated the lands but avoided settling there. Only after several years, in 1883, was the colony of Yesod HaMa'ala founded, which suffered severely from diseases and harsh conditions in its early years.

In 1914, the area of Lake Hula was granted a concession by the Ottoman government to Hamad Omar Beitum and Michael Sursock, merchants from Beirut, with the goal of draining the lake. In March 1918, the Turkish administration approved the concession and transferred it to a company formed for this purpose called "The Syrian-Ottoman Agricultural Company". Meanwhile, part of the concession area came under British control and the rest came under French control. In 1919, the concession holders approached the Mandate Government, demanding recognition of their concession. The Colonial Office agreed to recognize their concession, but negotiations continued for ten years. Finally, the leaseholders received a renewed concession from the British Mandate government, and the land was transferred to them in early 1929. In 1933, the leaseholders rebuilt the Bnot Ya'akov Bridge, and in 1934, they built a dam on the Jordan River north of the bridge and began deepening and widening the river channel. The concession area covered about 56.5 square kilometers, including approximately 21.5 square kilometers of swamps, 17 square kilometers of Lake Hula, and 18.5 square kilometers of land.[15] In May 1933, an agreement was reached between the Land Development Company and one of the leaseholders to sell the concession to the Land Development Company. In September 1934, the transfer was approved by the High Commissioner, and the land was transferred to the Land Development Company at the end of November 1934.[16][17]

In 1936, Kibbutz Hulata was founded south of Yesod HaMa'ala, named after the lake, with its economy based on fishing until the lake was drained. Near Derdera (Ashmura) on the eastern shore of the lake, Kibbutz Ayelet was founded in 1947. Access to the kibbutz was by boat across the lake from Hulata. After suffering severe attacks from the Syrian army during the War of Independence, the founders left the area in 1949 and resettled near Kfar Saba.

The area of the valley is 175 square kilometers, of which 30-60 square kilometers are swamps. The depth of the peat layer is 35 meters.

Flora and fauna

[edit]

The lake is located between the Golan heights and the Galilee, tributaries that emanate from the mountains bring water to the lake. According to the JNF, 390 species of birds cross through the region as part of their migrations between Africa and Europe; 500 milion birds go through the Hula valley in which the lake is located.[18]

A rare overlapping of African and European habitats in the swamps of the Hula Valley caused the region to become particularly rich in species of both flora and fauna. For many of them it was the only habitat of its kind in the Land of Israel.

Extinct plant species

[edit]

The unique flora of the Hula valley and its marshlands was only partially preserved and restored in the reflooding of the Hula Lake, while some seven uncommon species, all of which grew mostly along the swamp margins, went extinct due to the drainage project.[19]

  • Hydrocharis Morsus-ranae L. (European frog-bit) – Native to Europe and parts of Asia, primarily in temperate regions.[22] Also a perennial herb, it possesses floating leaves and is found in shallow bodies of water, such as slow-flowing streams, ditches and stagnant waters. Before its local extinction, it was found in the Einan stream and on the fringes of the swamp.[21]
  • Marsilea minuta L. (water clover) – Native to the tropical and sub-tropical old world.[23] It is a rhizomatous perennial fern and it grows in swamps and along their banks. Before its local extinction it was found in the margins of the Hula swamp and along the edges of the Jahula pools.[19]
  • Nymphaea alba L. (white water lily) – Native to Europe, Near and Middle Eastern Asia and Northwest Africa.[24] It is an aquatic, rhizomatous, perennial plant with floating flowers and leaves, and it grows in lakes and ponds. Before its local extinction it was found in the pools and the Jordan distributary near the Hula lake, in addition to the marshlands near the Einan stream.[19]
  • Rorippa amphibia L. Besser (greater yellow cress) – Native to Europe, Eurasia, North West Iran and Algeria.[25] It is a Perennial herb and it grows in marshes and wetlands. Before its local extinction it was found along the edges of the Hula swamps.[19]
  • Scutellaria galericulata L. (hooded willow-herb)  – Native to the temperate northern hemisphere.[26] It is a perennial, emergent herb and it grows in marshes and alongside rivers and lakes.[26] Before its local extinction it was found in the open areas of the Papyrus marshes.[19]
  • Utricularia Australis R. Br. (Utricularia vulgaris L., common bladderwort) – Native to the temperate biome in Europe, parts of Asia and Northwest Africa.[27] It is an annual flowering plant, and it grows in relatively deep, calm waters. Before its local extinction it was found on the spring margins, in the marshland pools and in the Hula lake.[19]

Fauna

[edit]

Large mammals

[edit]

The water buffalo is the largest mammal to inhabit the Hula Lake region, historically populating marshlands throughout Israel. Before their disappearance, the Hula Lake area was home to approximately 5,000 water buffalo out of a country-wide population of 6,000. However, during the British Mandate most of these animals were lost, and the remaining population was culled during Israel's Austerity period.[28] This led to an ecological imbalance in the Hula Lake area, with the unchecked proliferation of the common reed overshadowing other plant species. Attempts to reintroduce water buffalo to the Hula were initially unsuccessful. It was not until after the Six-Day War that a population of 200 water buffalo was discovered in the Bethsaida valley. Sixty of these individuals were subsequently relocated to the Hula Lake region. Following a brief adaptation period, their reintroduction proved successful, and their grazing activities contributed to controlling the spread of the common reed, thereby facilitating the growth of a diverse array of other plant species in the area.[28]

Apart from the water buffalo, the Hula Valley is home to only two other large mammals: the Mountain gazelle and the wild boar. Large and mid-sized predators are either scarce or absent in the region, with the exception of stray dogs. However, the populations of both gazelles and wild boars are regulated by other ecological factors, preventing issues of overpopulation.[29]

Small mammals

[edit]

In the Hula Lake region, small mammals are more prevalent than large ones. Among these, the mongoose experienced a population decline in the 1960s due to poisoning but has since recovered. Another notable small mammal is the Nutria, which was introduced from South America in the 1950s for the fur industry and has since undergone significant population growth.[29]

Other native animals in the region, such as European wildcats, Jungle cats, and otters, are infrequently observed due to their nocturnal and elusive behavior. These species maintain small but stable populations. Although the European water vole has never been observed alive in Israel, its skeletal remains have been discovered in owl pellets from the area prior to the drying initiatives.[29]

Birds

[edit]

The Hula Lake region is a central stopover for migrating waterfowl traveling between Europe and Africa, and serves as a key wintering habitat for tens of thousands of birds across dozens of species. Over 100 bird species have been documented in the area, with over 30 species using it as a nesting site. Notably, the Hula Lake was the exclusive nesting ground in Israel and the southernmost nesting site worldwide for several species, including the Western marsh harrier, the black tern, and the ferruginous duck.[30]

The lake is frequented by various migratory waterfowl during the winter months, including pelicans, ducks, seagulls, coots, herons, Charadriiformes, cranes, storks, starlings, and lapwings. Among these, pelicans are the most prominent, arriving daily in flocks numbering in the thousands. Barn swallows are also commonly seen, with thousands hunting insects over the water, and over ten thousand ducks of various species are observed in and around the lake.[31]

However, some migratory species have largely vanished from the area due to the drying project, including the African darter, the Swamphen, Baillon's crake, the Pygmy cormorant, the Goliath heron, and the White-tailed eagle.[31]

Among nesting species, the majority, such as Savi's warbler, the great reed warbler, the moustached warbler, Cetti's warbler and the little bittern, prefer to nest in dense thickets and are thus rarely observed. In contrast, species like the black-winged stilt and the spur winged lapwing, which returned following restoration of the lake, nest on the ground and are more conspicuous.[32]

Hula lake also hosts significant nesting colonies. The common tern nests on designated artificial islands. As of 1978, heron colonies included nests of approximately 1000 night herons, 1000 little egrets, 700 cattle egrets, 30 purple herons, 20 squacco herons and 3 to 4 ibises.[32]

Following the drainage of the Hula, several bird species, including the grey heron, the great crested grebe, the pygmy cormorant and Baillon's crake, were unable to adapt to the altered habitat and subsequently vanished from the region. Other species, such as the ferruginous duck, the marbled duck and the western yellow wagtail, initially abandoned the Hula habitat for alternative environments such as fish ponds and cesspools.[33] However, some of these species have partially reoccupied the area since the limited restoration of the lake.[32]

Amphibians and reptiles

[edit]

Salamanders are distributed across the Carmel, the Upper Galilee and Mount Hermon; however, the largest population is found in the Hula lake area.[31] The Hula painted frog, an endemic species to the Hula lake, represents the sole surviving member of the genus Latonia.[31] Believed to be extinct since the drying project,[31] the species was rediscovered in 2011 during a routine patrol of the Hula nature reserve, with hundreds of additional specimens identified since then.[34][35][36][37] Mauremys turtles are also prevalent to the Hula lake, and are frequently observed basking above the water surface during the spring and summer months.[38]

Fish

[edit]

The Hula lake was home to sixteen fish species of varied origins. These included African species such as tilapia and catfish; tropical Asian species such as the barbus, the Galilean stone loach, the red garra and the gara nana; the Orontes minnow which likely migrated from northern regions during the ice age, and the Levantine scraper and Hula bream which also originated from the north and the iridescent toothcarp which came from the ocean. Two species, the carp and the mosquitofish were introduced by humans.[39]

Following the lake's drainage, the number of fish species significantly declined. however, the catfish population proliferated, causing issues as they preyed on sternas, herons and ducklings. The carp population also flourished, both in number and in specimen size, with some individuals reaching up to 1 meter in length and weighing 20 kilograms.[40]

The Drying Project

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The decision to dry up the lake and swamps was made by the authorities of the State of Israel, with the aim of expanding the agricultural lands of the Upper Galilee settlements. The drying process took place between 1951 and 1958, and upon its completion, the lake and swamp area was transformed into a wide plain, drained by a network of canals.[41][42]

The drying project sparked a widespread public struggle, which led to the establishment of the Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel. As a result, a small part of the lake was preserved and became the Hula Nature Reserve, Israel's first nature reserve. However, the reserve was not sufficient to protect the entire biodiversity of the lake and swamp environment. Due to the drying, Tristramella simonis disappeared from the landscape of Israel. Additionally, endemic species were greatly affected, the Hula painted frog became critically endangered, and the Hula bream Mirogrex hulensis became completely extinct. A significant portion of species vanished from the area, and the populations of others were greatly reduced.[42]

In the years following the drying, it became clear that a large portion of the dried lands was not suitable for cultivation. Additionally, the drying process prevented the deposition of many organic materials in the swamp, causing these materials to flow into the Sea of Galilee, resulting in pollution and harm to the fish and water quality. Consequently, in the early 1990s, controlled flooding of part of the former swamp areas began, creating the Hula Lake, a process that contributes to the return of some migratory birds to the area.

References

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  1. ^ Gophen, Moshe (2023), Hula Drainage Project, Springer Geography, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–11, doi:10.1007/978-3-031-23412-5_1, ISBN 978-3-031-23411-8, retrieved 2024-07-12
  2. ^ Gophen, Moshe; Tsipris, Y.; Meron, M.; Bar-Ilan, I. (2003). "The management of Lake Agmon Wetlands (Hula Valley, Israel)". Hydrobiologia. 506–509 (1–3): 803–809. doi:10.1023/b:hydr.0000008602.77264.8c. ISSN 0018-8158.
  3. ^ a b c d Inbar, Moshe (July 2002). "A Geomorphic and Environmental Evaluation of the Hula Drainage Project, Israel". Australian Geographical Studies. 40 (2): 155–166. doi:10.1111/1467-8470.00171. ISSN 0004-9190.
  4. ^ "Bible Gateway passage: Joshua 11:5 - New International Version". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 2024-07-12.
  5. ^ John Garstang, The Foundation of Bible History: Joshua, Judges. London: Constable & Co. 1931, pp. 192-197
  6. ^ "עבר הירדן היהודי: מזמן בית־שני עד המאה האחרונה של ימי־הבינים / שמואל קליין - פרויקט בן־יהודה". benyehuda.org. Retrieved 2024-07-12.
  7. ^ a b "Babylonian Talmud, Baba Batra 21a - 1 | Sefaria". www.sefaria.org. Retrieved 2024-07-12.
  8. ^ "Jerusalem Talmud Shekalim 6:2". www.sefaria.org. Retrieved 2024-07-12.
  9. ^ Jerusalem Talmud, Tractate of Klaiim, Chapter 9, Halacha 3
  10. ^ Emanuel HaReuvani, Get Up and Walk in Israel, Guide to Nature Reserves in Israel, "The Hula Reserve", published by the Ministry of Defense, May 1986
  11. ^ Josephus, The Jewish War, IV, 1, 1
  12. ^ Josephus, The Jewish War 3, 3, 1
  13. ^ Moshe David Kasuto Biblical encyclopedia: The treasure of information of the Bible and its era - I: Av - Etarim Jerusalem Bialik Institute 5750 - 1950 Page: 665
  14. ^ Reisher, Moshe. The Gates of Jerusalem (Hebrew). p. 31.
  15. ^ Sursock
  16. ^ "⁨כיצד נמסרה ה קוט ים יה על אדמת ה"הודה ⁩ — ⁨⁨דאר היום⁩ 11 יוני 1935⁩ — הספרייה הלאומית של ישראל │ עיתונים". www.nli.org.il (in Hebrew). Retrieved 2024-07-14.
  17. ^ "⁨הממשלה מספרת _את הוללות זניוז החולה ⁩ — ⁨⁨דבר⁩ 13 יוני 1935⁩ — הספרייה הלאומית של ישראל │ עיתונים". www.nli.org.il (in Hebrew). Retrieved 2024-07-14.
  18. ^ https://www.kkl-jnf.org/tourism-and-recreation/forests-and-parks/hula-lake-park/
  19. ^ a b c d e f Melamed, Yoel; Kislev, Mordechai; Weiss, Ehud; Simchoni, Orit (2011-04-01). "Extinction of water plants in the Hula Valley: Evidence for climate change". Journal of Human Evolution. Special Issue: Early-Middle Pleistocene palaeoenvironments in the Levant. 60 (4): 325. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.07.025. ISSN 0047-2484.
  20. ^ "Berula erecta (Huds.) Coville | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science". Plants of the World Online. Retrieved 2024-07-31.
  21. ^ a b Melamed, Yoel; Kislev, Mordechai; Weiss, Ehud; Simchoni, Orit (2011-04-01). "Extinction of water plants in the Hula Valley: Evidence for climate change". Journal of Human Evolution. Special Issue: Early-Middle Pleistocene palaeoenvironments in the Levant. 60 (4): 324. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.07.025. ISSN 0047-2484.
  22. ^ "Hydrocharis morsus-ranae L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science". Plants of the World Online. Retrieved 2024-07-31.
  23. ^ "Marsilea minuta L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science". Plants of the World Online. Retrieved 2024-07-31.
  24. ^ "Nymphaea alba L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science". Plants of the World Online. Retrieved 2024-07-31.
  25. ^ "Rorippa amphibia (L.) Besser | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science". Plants of the World Online. Retrieved 2024-07-31.
  26. ^ a b "Scutellaria galericulata L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science". Plants of the World Online. Retrieved 2024-07-31.
  27. ^ "Utricularia vulgaris L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science". Plants of the World Online. Retrieved 2024-07-31.
  28. ^ a b פז, עזי (1990). "שמורות טבע: שמורת החולה". אריאל: כתב עת לידיעת ארץ ישראל (in Hebrew) (75–76): 116.
  29. ^ a b c לבנה, מיכה. "החי והצומח בעמק החולה". אריאל: כתב עת לידיעת ארץ ישראל (in Hebrew) (75–76): 21.
  30. ^ פז, עזי (1990). "שמורות טבע: שמורת החולה". אריאל: כתב עת לידיעת ארץ ישראל (in Hebrew) (75–76): 114.
  31. ^ a b c d e לבנה, מיכה. "החי והצומח בעמק החולה". אריאל: כתב עת לידיעת ארץ ישראל (in Hebrew) (75–76): 22.
  32. ^ a b c פז, עזי (1990). "שמורות טבע: שמורת החולה". אריאל: כתב עת לידיעת ארץ ישראל (in Hebrew) (75–76): 119.
  33. ^ פז, עזי (1990). "שמורות טבע: שמורת החולה". אריאל: כתב עת לידיעת ארץ ישראל (in Hebrew) (75–76): 115.
  34. ^ Shpigel, Noah (30 April 2016). "Scientists Discover Hula Painted Frog Hasn't Croaked After". Haaretz. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
  35. ^ Morelle, Rebecca (2013-06-04). "Rediscovered Hula painted frog 'is a living fossil'". BBC. Retrieved 2013-06-04.
  36. ^ Biton, Rebecca; Geffen, Eli; Vences, Miguel; Cohen, Orly; Bailon, Salvador; Rabinovich, Rivka; Malka, Yoram; Oron, Talya; Boistel, Renaud; Brumfeld, Vlad; Gafny, Sarig (4 June 2013). "The rediscovered Hula painted frog is a living fossil". Nature Communications. 4. Article 1959. Bibcode:2013NatCo...4.1959B. doi:10.1038/ncomms2959. PMID 23736869.
  37. ^ Zafrir, Rinat (November 17, 2011). "Long thought extinct, Hula painted frog found once again in Israeli nature reserve". Haaretz.
  38. ^ פז, עזי (1990). "שמורות טבע: שמורת החולה". אריאל: כתב עת לידיעת ארץ ישראל (in Hebrew) (75–76): 116.
  39. ^ פז, עזי (1990). "שמורות טבע: שמורת החולה". אריאל: כתב עת לידיעת ארץ ישראל (in Hebrew) (75–76): 113.
  40. ^ פז, עזי (1990). "שמורות טבע: שמורת החולה". אריאל: כתב עת לידיעת ארץ ישראל (in Hebrew) (75–76): 114-115.
  41. ^ ynet (2008-03-19). "הביצה שהתייבשה". Ynet (in Hebrew). Retrieved 2024-07-12.
  42. ^ a b Micah Levana, "Drying the Hula", Ariel 75-76, August 1990

Further reading

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  • Karmon, Yehuda. The Formation of the Huleh Landscape/התהוות הנוף של עמק-חולה: א. האגם והבקעה. ידיעות החברה לחקירת ארץ-ישראל ועתיקותיה, 1955, 70-88.
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