Jump to content

Kongu Nadu

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Kongunadu)

Kongu Nadu
Kongu Mandalam
Geographical region
Location of Kongu Nadu
CountryIndia
State(s)Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka[a]
District(s)Coimbatore, Dharmapuri, Erode, Karur, Krishnagiri, Namakkal, Nilgiris, Tiruppur, Salem
Parts of Dindigul, Tiruchirappalli, Palakkad and Chamarajanagar[a]
Largest cityCoimbatore
Area
[3]
 • Total60,895 km2 (23,512 sq mi)
Population
 (2011)[3]
 • Total27,443,069
Languages
 • MajorTamil (Kongu Tamil)
 • OthersBadaga, English, Irula, Kannada, Malayalam, Telugu, Toda
Time zoneIndian Standard Time

Kongu Nadu, also known as Kongu Mandalam, is the geographical region comprising the western and north-western part of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and in some instances, parts of southeastern Karnataka and eastern Kerala.[a] The region covers an area of roughly 60,895 km2 (23,512 sq mi) with a population of over 27.4 million.

The geography of the region is diverse, with the Western and Eastern Ghats traversing along the Deccan plateau. The Kaveri, Bhavani, Amaravati and Noyyal rivers are the important non-perennial sources of water. Coimbatore, Tiruppur and Salem are the largest urban areas in the region. The majority of the people in the region speak Kongu Tamil, a variant of Tamil language. While the region is a significant contributor to the economy of the state, disparity remains within various districts in the region.

In the ancient Tamilakam, it was the seat of the Cheras, bound by Tondai Nadu in the east, Chola Nadu in the south-east and Pandya Nadu in the south. The region finds mention in Patiṟṟuppattu literature from the first century CE as a thriving industrial and commercial center with other references to the people in the second century Tamil epic Silappathikaram and other Sangam literature. The region served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap, on the principal trade route that extended from Muziris in the west coast to Arikamedu in the east. The Pandyas and Western Gangas ruled over the region later.

The medieval Cholas conquered the region in the tenth century CE. It came under the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire by the 15th century after which the Madurai Nayaks, who were the military governors of the Vijayanagara established their independent kingdom. In the latter part of the 18th century, the region came under the Kingdom of Mysore. After the defeat of Tipu Sultan in the Anglo-Mysore Wars and the Polygar Wars, the British East India Company annexed the region to the Madras Presidency in the early nineteenth century. The region played a significant role in the Indian independence movement. It became part of Madras state post Indian Independence from the British Raj with majority of the region, forming a part of Tamil Nadu later.

Etymology

[edit]

Kongunadu is a combination of two Tamil words meaning "Kongu country". Kongu might mean nectar or honey, probably arising from the area's early residents Kongars, who used to wear a garland made of konganam flowers, which were plentiful in this area.[4] Kongu might have also been derived from the Tamil word Kangu, which meant edge or boundary. Since this area served as a border between the ancient Tamil kingdoms, it might have eventually transformed to Kongu.[5] The region was also known as Kongadesam with Konga, a variant of the term Ganga to mean the land ruled by Western Gangas.[6][7][4] The region is also known as "Kongu Mandalam" with mandalam meaning "region" in Tamil.[8] At various times, the region was known by different names such Chola-Kerala mandalam, Adhiraja mandalam, Ezhukarai nadu, Veerachola mandalam and Onbathukarai nadu.[5]

History

[edit]

Kongu Nadu was one of the territorial divisions in the ancient Tamilakam.[9] Archaeological excavations from Kodumanal on the banks of the Noyyal River show traces of civilization from 4th century BCE.[10][11] Kodumanal is mentioned in Patiṟṟuppattu literature from the first century CE as a thriving industrial and commercial center.[12] The Kosar people from the region are mentioned in the 2nd century CE Tamil epic Silappathikaram.[13] Early Tamil Brahmi writings have been found on coins, seals and rings obtained from Amaravati river bed near Karuvur.[14][15] An inscription found in a cave in Arachalur was dated to 4th Century CE and as per Iravatham Mahadevan, these were music syllables used in dance with further such sites discovered in Thadagam near Coimbatore.[16] The region was in the middle of a trade route leading across the Palghat gap in the Western Ghats and that extended from Muziris to Arikamedu linking the Mediterranean to East Asia.[17][18]

Chola coins during the reign of Rajendra I, showing the Chera emblem (Bow and arrow) along with the tiger signange of Cholas

While the region was ruled by tribal chieftains during the early Sangam period, it was ruled by the Cheras between first and fourth centuries CE with the capital at Karuvur. Chera dominance of the region began with the rule of the Palyanai Sel Kelu Kuttuvan, the son of Uthiyan Cheralathan.[19] The region came under the influence of the Pandyas during the reign of Arikesari Maravarman in the seventh century CE.[20] Later, the region was ruled by various dynasties such as Rashtrakutas and Western Gangas.[21]

The Kongu Cheras gained influence over the region and were in alliance with the Pandyas.[22] The medieval Cholas led by Aditya I, conquered the region in ninth century CE.[22] Pandya king Rajasimha II, who was defeated by Parantaka I, is known to have found asylum in the region.[22] With Raja Raja I defeating the Cheras and Pandyas, the entire region came under the Chola influence.[23] While the region was directly under the control of the Imperial Cholas till 1064 CE, the Kongu Cholas who were probably vassals or viceroys of the Cholas, ruled the region autonomously later starting.[23] These rulers bore the title Konattar and adopted Chola titles and surnames.[24]

Map of South India in 1909, showing the region as a part of Madras Presidency

In the 13th century CE, after the death of Vikrama Chola II, the Pandyas annexed the region with the inscriptions at Srirangam temple mentioning the victory of Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I in the region.[25] The rule of the Pandyas came to an end with the death of Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I in 1318 CE.[26] The Hoysalas ruled the region for sometime later with Vira Someshwara having a matrimonial alliance with both Pandyas and Cholas. After the defeat of Veera Ballala III of the Hoysalas, the region came under the control of the Delhi Sultanate.[27] In the 15th century, Vijayanagara empire defeated the Mughals and established sway over the region.[28] [29]

After the Vijayanagara empire fell in 1646, the region was ruled by various Nayak governors of the erstwhile Vijayanagara empire who declared independence. They introduced the Palayakkarar system under which the region was divided into 24 Palayams(towns).[30] In the latter part of the 18th century, the region came under the Kingdom of Mysore, following a series of wars with the Nayaks. After the defeat of Tipu Sultan in the Anglo-Mysore Wars and the Polygar Wars, the British East India Company annexed the region to the Madras Presidency the early 19th century.[31] The region played a prominent role in the Second Polygar war (1801), when it was the area of operations of Dheeran Chinnamalai who fought against the rule of British East India Company.[32] Later, the British Empire took control of the region from the British East India Company in 1857.[33]

After Indian Independence in 1947, the region was part of the Madras State.[34] After the States Reorganisation Act of 1956, which re-organized state boundaries, majority of the region became part of the new Madras state, which would become Tamil Nadu in 1969.[35][36]

Geography

[edit]
Map of Tamil Nadu showing the Kongu Nadu region

The borders of the region are not well defined as the name has been in popular use to refer the region and has not been officially defined.[37] The region covers an estimated area of 60,895 km2 (23,512 sq mi) of Western and North-Western Tamil Nadu and includes the core districts of Coimbatore, Dharmapuri, Erode, Karur, Krishnagiri, Namakkal, Nilgiris, Tiruppur and Salem.[3][38] Some sources consider parts of Dindigul, Tiruchirappalli districts in Tamil Nadu, Palakkad district in Kerala and Chamarajanagar district or south eastern Karnataka as part of the region.[2][1] It shares its western and northern borders with states of Kerala and Karnataka respectively, while straddling other districts of Tamil Nadu on the other sides.[5]

The Western Ghats runs south along the western side with the Eastern Ghats cutting through the region.[39] Both mountain ranges meet at the Nilgiri mountains in the region, which run in a crescent approximately along the borders of Tamil Nadu with northern Kerala and Karnataka.[40] Majority of the region lies in the Deccan plateau bound by these mountain ranges.[41] The plateau rises to 100 metres (330 ft) in the north and to more than 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) in the south, forming a raised triangle within the downward-pointing triangle of the Indian subcontinent's coastline.[42] Palghat Gap, a mountain pass across the Western Ghats connects the region to the west coast.[43] The major rivers Kaveri, Bhavani, Amaravati, Noyyal and Siruvani flow through the region and are the important non-perennial sources of water.[44] The topography also slopes gently from West to East resulting in major rivers in the region arising in the Western Ghats and flowing east.[45] The region has a tropical climate and depends on monsoons for rainfall. Due to the south-west monsoon winds passing through the Palghat gap, the region receives most of the rainfall in the months from June to August. After a warm and foggy September, the north-east monsoon starts from October, lasting until early November.[46]

Flora and fauna

[edit]

There is a wide diversity of plants and animals in the region, resulting from its varied climates and geography. Deciduous forests are found along the Western Ghats while tropical dry forests and scrub lands are common in the interior.[47] The Western Ghats is one of the eight hottest biodiversity hotspots in the world and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[48][49] Mudumalai National Park was the first national park in India, established in 1940 and the region has 11 national parks and wildlife sanctuaries.[50] Bird sanctuaries including Vellode and Nanjarayan Tank are home to numerous migratory and local birds.[51][52] The region has significant populations of endangered Bengal tigers and Indian elephants, being home to three Project Tiger reserves and three Project Elephant reserves.[53][54] [55][56] Other threatened and endangered species found in the region include the grey slender loris,[57] sloth bear,[58] Nilgiri tahr,[59] Nilgiri langur,[60] lion-tailed macaque,[61] and the Indian leopard.[62]

Demographics

[edit]

As per the 2011 census, the region had a population of over 27.4 million.[3] The population is predominantly Hindu with minority Muslim and Christian population.[63] Caste plays an important role in the region with common myths and ideas contributing to the formation of a caste identity.[64] Gounders influence the political and economic space in the region.[65] Incidents of persecution against Scheduled castes, ranging from discrimation based on caste, violent assault and honor killings have been reported from the region.[65][66] In comparison to the southern or northern districts, the socio-economic and political divide between the Dalits and other intermediary castes is significant in the Kongu region.[65]

Language

[edit]

Kongu Tamil (also called Kangee or Kongalam), a dialect of Tamil, which is the predominantly spoken in the region.[67][68] Tamil is the sole official language while English is an additional official language for communication purposes. Other languages spoken include Badaga, Toda, Irula and Kota by the tribal population of the Nilgiris district and Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu.[69]

Culture

[edit]

The people of the region upheld the Tirukkural with utmost reverence, which remained as the chief administrative text during the medieval period with several Kural inscriptions and other historical records are found across the region.[70] The 15th-century Jain inscriptions in the Ponsorimalai near Mallur indicate shunning meat from Tirukkural which may indicate that the people of the region might have practiced ahimsa and non-killing as chief virtues.[71] Sati was also practiced in the region.[72] The culture of the region was similar to that of Mysore region of south Karnataka due to historical and geographic continuity.[73] The people of the region have a reputation for entrepreneurship.[74][75] The temples in the region follow the Dravidian style.[76] In Dravidian architecture, the temples considered of porches or Mantapas preceding the door leading to the sanctum, Gate-pyramids or Gopurams in quadrangular enclosures that surround the temple and Pillared halls used for many purposes and are the invariable accompaniments of these temples. Besides these, a South Indian temple usually has a tank called the Kalyani or Pushkarni.[77] The Gopuram is a monumental tower, usually ornate at the entrance of the temple forms a prominent feature of Koils and Hindu temples of the Dravidian style.[78] They are topped by the kalasam, a bulbous stone finial and function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex.[79]

Cuisine

[edit]

Kongu Nadu cuisine is predominantly South Indian with rice as its base and includes a unique collection of recipes created by the people residing in the Kongu region. The cuisine includes cereals like maize, ragi, samai, cholam, kambu, kezhvaragu, and different kinds of pulses, millets and sesame. Millets were staple food items in the region until the Green Revolution increased the usage of Ponni rice as a staple.[80] The traditional way of eating a meal involves being seated on the floor and having the food served on a banana leaf.[81][82] Eating on banana leaves is a custom thousands of years old, imparts a unique flavor to the food, and is considered healthy.[83] Kongu Nadu cuisine does not involve marination of any raw material and as a result the food has a different taste and unique texture. The best quality turmeric is grown in the region and this is an important ingredient in the cuisine.[84] The earlier Kongu people were mostly vegetarians for religious reason.[85]

Idly, dosa, paniyaram and appam are popular dishes.[86][87][88][89] Opputtu is a sweet made with rice, chickpea, palm or cane jaggery, cardamom and ghee.[90] Ariseemparuppu (literally translated as Rice and dal) is a unique dish originated from the region.[91] Kaalaan is a popular dish prepared by simmering deep-fried mushrooms (usually chopped) in a spicy broth until it reaches a porridge-like consistency; the dish is served sprinkled with chopped onions and coriander leaves.[92][93]

Economy

[edit]
Further information: Economy of Coimbatore and Economy of Salem

Kongu Nadu had a flourishing economy from ancient times and had trade contacts with foreign nations. Kodumanal was a 2,500-year-old industrial colony discovered by archaeologists, located along an ancient Roman trade route.[94][95][96][97] A Chola highway called Rajakesari Peruvazhi ran through the region.[98][99] Agriculture is the primary occupation in the region.[100] Rice is the staple food and major crop in the region.[101] Some of the main crops cultivated include sugarcane, spices, chilli, banana, cotton, turmeric, millets and pulses.[102][103] Other plantation crops include coffee, tea, rubber, betel, areca nut and coconut.[104][105] and 85% of the natural rubber production in the country.[106] Other major agricultural products include poultry and silk.[107][108]

Coimbatore is amongst the major information technology (IT) hubs of India and supplies two-thirds of India's requirements of motors and pumps, and is one of the largest exporters of wet grinders and auto components, as well as jewellery.[109] Another major industry is textiles with the Tiruppur home to more than 10,000 garment manufacturing industries, employing over 600,000 people.[110] As of 2021-22, Tiruppur exported garments worth 5.1 billion USD, contributing to nearly 54% of the all the textile exports from India.[110][111][112]

Demand for statehood

[edit]

There has been demands for the formation a separate state of Kongu Nadu, which would include western Tamil Nadu with sections of south east Karnataka and east Kerala.[113][114] Various political parties occasionally raise similar demand.[115][116] Local caste based political outfits Kongunadu Munnetra Kazhagam and Kongu Vellala Goundergal Peravai also supported the demand.[117]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c Kongu Nadu generally refers to the core nine districts in Western Tamil Nadu. A few sources do include parts of other districts in Tamil Nadu, and neighboring states of Kerala and Karnataka as part of the region.[1][2]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b "'Kongu Nadu' part of BJP's Grand Plan?". Rediff. 13 July 2021. Archived from the original on 20 June 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  2. ^ a b "Campaign Reaches Fever Pitch in Revenue-Rich Kongu Nadu as DMK-Congress, AIADMK-BJP Battle it Out". News18. 1 April 2019. Archived from the original on 11 July 2021. Retrieved 11 July 2021.
  3. ^ a b c d Districts of Tamil Nadu (Report). Government of Tamil Nadu. Archived from the original on 27 July 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  4. ^ a b Ramamurthy, V. (1986). History of Kongu: Pre-historic period to 1300 A.D. International Society for the Investigation of Ancient Civilization. p. 20.
  5. ^ a b c Venkatraman, V. (20 January 2018). "The Society of Kongunadu Through the Inscriptions of Seven Kongu Saivaite Temples". Social Science Research Network. Rochester, NY.
  6. ^ Menon, P. Shungoonny (1 January 1998). History of Travancore from the Earliest Times. Asian Educational Services. p. 33. ISBN 978-81-206-0169-7.
  7. ^ Ramamurthy, V. (1986). History of Kongu: Volume 1. p. 19.
  8. ^ The Cauvery, a Living Museum: 16-17 September 1999, 5-6 March 2001, Seminar Proceedings. Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Sangrahalaya. 2001. p. 407. Archived from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 2 December 2021.
  9. ^ "On how Kongu Nadu was a Jain bastion". The Hindu. 12 October 2017. Archived from the original on 23 October 2019. Retrieved 5 December 2019.
  10. ^ Singh, Upinder (2009). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Addison Wesley. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.
  11. ^ Rajan, K.; Athiyaman, N. (2004). "Traditional Gemstone Cutting Technology of Kongu Region in Tamil Nadu" (PDF). Indian Journal of History of Science. 39 (4): 385–414. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 January 2024. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  12. ^ Sasisekaran, B.; Raghunatha Rao, B. (1999). "Technology of Iron and Steel in Kodumanal, an ancient industrial center in Tamil Nadu" (PDF). Indian Journal of History of Science. 34 (4). Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 January 2024. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  13. ^ S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar (2009). Some Contributions of South India to Indian Culture. BiblioBazaar. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-113-17175-7.
  14. ^ "Roman Karur". Tamil Arts Academy. Archived from the original on 7 May 2012. Retrieved 3 May 2012.
  15. ^ Rami Reddy, V.; Chandrasekhar Reddy, B.K. (2004). "Morphometric Status of Human Skeletal Remains From Kodumanal, Periyar District, Tamil Nadu" (PDF). Anthropologist. 6 (4): 104–112. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 July 2011. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
  16. ^ "Megalithic site discovered near Thadagam". The Hindu. 9 December 2016. Archived from the original on 27 January 2024. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  17. ^ Schoff, Wilfred (1912). The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel And Trade In The Indian Ocean By A Merchant Of The First Century. South Asia Books. ISBN 978-8-1215-0699-1.
  18. ^ J. Innes, Miller (1998) [1969]. The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29 B.C. to A.D. 641. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1981-4264-5.
  19. ^ Menon, A. Sreedhara (2011). Kerala History and its Makers. D C Books. p. 23. ISBN 978-8-126-43782-5.
  20. ^ Mahajan, Vidya Dhar (1968). Ancient India. S. Chand. p. 570. ISBN 978-9-352-53132-5.
  21. ^ Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2017). Historical Dictionary of the Tamils. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 217. ISBN 978-1-538-10686-0.
  22. ^ a b c Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013). Perumāḷs of Kerala. Cosmo Books. pp. 95–96, 108.
  23. ^ a b Ali, Daud (2007). "The Service Retinues of the Chola Court". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 70 (3): 487–509. doi:10.1017/S0041977X0700081X. ISSN 0041-977X. JSTOR 40378936. S2CID 162530217. Archived from the original on 9 May 2023. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
  24. ^ Thangamani, M.R. (1982). New Light on the History of the Kongu Cholas. Erode. p. 77.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  25. ^ Chettiar, C.M. Ramachandra (1987). History of Kongu Nadu. Madras. p. 150.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  26. ^ Sethuraman, N (1978). The imperial Pandyas: Mathematics reconstructs the chronology. Kumbakonam. p. 174.
  27. ^ Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization (2nd ed.). New Age Publishers. p. 199. ISBN 978-81-224-1198-0.
  28. ^ Sastri, Nilakanta (1976). A History of South India from Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar. Oxford University Press. pp. 7, 69, 179, 199, 214, 239. ISBN 978-0-1956-0686-7.
  29. ^ Arokiaswami, M (1956). The Kongu Country. Madras. p. 329.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  30. ^ "The land called Kongunad". The Hindu. 19 November 2005. Archived from the original on 28 May 2011. Retrieved 9 June 2010.
  31. ^ Rajayyan, K. (1974). Rise and Fall of the Poligars of Tamilnadu. University of Madras. p. 2.
  32. ^ "Chinnamalai, a lesser-known freedom fighter of Kongu soil". The Hindu. 2 August 2008. Archived from the original on 7 December 2019. Retrieved 7 September 2008.
  33. ^ Hibbert, Christopher (1 March 2000). Great Mutiny: India 1857. Penguin. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-1400-4752-3.
  34. ^ "Article 1". Constitution of India. Government of India. Archived from the original on 2 April 2012. Retrieved 31 December 2015.
  35. ^ Thapar, Romesh (1978). Change and Conflict in India. Macmillan. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-8364-0222-3.
  36. ^ States Reorganisation Act, 1956 (PDF) (Report). High Court of Tripura. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 September 2023. Retrieved 16 September 2023.
  37. ^ Bergman (2008). Introduction to Geography. Pearson Education. p. 266. ISBN 978-8-131-70210-9.
  38. ^ Mohan, Rohini (9 May 2016). "No 'Marriage' of Ideologies: Kongu Parties Find Raison D'être in Their Differences With Dalits". The New Indian Express. Archived from the original on 10 May 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
  39. ^ Myers, Norman; Mittermeier, Russell A.; Mittermeier, Cristina G.; Da Fonseca, Gustavo A. B.; Kent, Jennifer (2000). "Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities". Nature. 403 (6772): 853–858. Bibcode:2000Natur.403..853M. doi:10.1038/35002501. PMID 10706275. S2CID 4414279. Archived from the original on 9 October 2013. Retrieved 16 November 2013.
  40. ^ Eagan, J. S. C (1916). The Nilgiri Guide And Directory. Chennai: S.P.C.K. Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-1-1494-8220-9.
  41. ^ Dr. Jadoan, Atar Singh (September 2001). Military Geography of South-East Asia. India: Anmol Publications. ISBN 978-8-1261-1008-7.
  42. ^ "The Deccan Peninsula". Sanctuary Asia. 5 January 2001. Archived from the original on 17 October 2006.
  43. ^ "Britannica Encyclopedia". Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
  44. ^ "The Peninsula". Asia-Pacific Mountain Network. Archived from the original on 12 August 2007. Retrieved 19 March 2007.
  45. ^ "Eastern Deccan Plateau Moist Forests". World Wildlife Fund. Archived from the original on 18 January 2008. Retrieved 5 January 2007.
  46. ^ McKnight, Tom L; Hess, Darrel (2000). "Climate Zones and Types: The Köppen System". Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. pp. 205–211. ISBN 978-0-1302-0263-5.
  47. ^ "Indo-Malayan Terrestrial Ecoregions". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 21 March 2001. Retrieved 15 April 2006.
  48. ^ "Western Ghats". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 18 January 2013. Retrieved 21 February 2014.
  49. ^ Biosphere Reserves in India (PDF) (Report). Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 February 2020. Retrieved 5 February 2020.
  50. ^ "Bio-Diversity and Wild Life in Tamil Nadu". ENVIS. Archived from the original on 10 April 2018. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
  51. ^ Baker, H.R.; Inglis, Chas. M. (1930). The birds of southern India, including Madras, Malabar, Travancore, Cochin, Coorg and Mysore. Chennai: Superintendent, Government Press.
  52. ^ Grimmett, Richard; Inskipp, Tim (30 November 2005). Birds of Southern India. A&C Black.
  53. ^ "India's tiger population rises". Deccan Chronicle. 15 January 2015. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
  54. ^ Elephant Census 2005 (PDF) (Report). Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 March 2012. Retrieved 23 February 2003.
  55. ^ Panwar, H. S. (1987). Project Tiger: The reserves, the tigers, and their future. Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, N.J. pp. 110–117. ISBN 978-0-8155-1133-5. Archived from the original on 31 March 2024. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
  56. ^ "Project Elephant Status". Times of India. 2 February 2009. Archived from the original on 2 August 2014. Retrieved 24 February 2009.
  57. ^ Singh, M.; Lindburg, D.G.; Udhayan, A.; Kumar, M.A.; Kumara, H.N. (1999). Status survey of slender loris Loris tardigradus lydekkerianus. Oryx. pp. 31–37.
  58. ^ Kottur, Samad (2012). Daroji-an ecological destination. Drongo. ISBN 978-9-3508-7269-7.
  59. ^ "Nilgiri tahr population over 3,000: WWF-India". The Hindu. 3 October 2015. Archived from the original on 8 February 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
  60. ^ Malviya, M.; Srivastav, A.; Nigam, P.; Tyagi, P.C. (2011). "Indian National Studbook of Nilgiri Langur (Trachypithecus johnii)" (PDF). Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun and Central Zoo Authority, New Delhi. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
  61. ^ Singh, M.; Kumar, A.; Kumara, H.N. (2020). "Macaca silenus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T12559A17951402. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T12559A17951402.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  62. ^ Stein, A.B.; Athreya, V.; Gerngross, P.; Balme, G.; Henschel, P.; Karanth, U.; Miquelle, D.; Rostro-Garcia, S.; Kamler, J.F.; Laguardia, A.; Khorozyan, I.; Ghoddousi, A. (2020). "Panthera pardus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T15954A163991139. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-1.RLTS.T15954A163991139.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  63. ^ "Tamil Nadu religion". Government of India. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  64. ^ Vijayabaskar, M; Wyatt, Andrew (2013). "Economic Change, Politics and Caste: The Case of the Kongu Nadu Munnetra Kazhagam". Economic and Political Weekly. 48 (48): 103–111. ISSN 0012-9976. JSTOR 23528935. Archived from the original on 11 July 2021. Retrieved 11 July 2021.
  65. ^ a b c Thangavelu, Dharani (12 October 2018). "In the name of caste, violence rules in Tamil Nadu's Kongu region". mint. Archived from the original on 11 July 2021. Retrieved 11 July 2021.
  66. ^ "Western TN gaining notoriety as honour killing capital". dtNext. 1 July 2019. Archived from the original on 18 January 2022. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  67. ^ Silva, Severine (1963). Toponomy of Canara. University of Michigan. p. 34. Archived from the original on 20 June 2024. Retrieved 27 January 2024. In the southern part of Mysore the Tamil language is at this day named the Kangee, from being best known to them as the language of the people of Kangiam
  68. ^ Poezold, F; Simpson, William (1809). Tamil̲umaiṅakilēcumāyirukakir̲a akarāti (2nd ed.). Oxford University. Archived from the original on 20 June 2024. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
  69. ^ Language – India, States and Union Territories (PDF). Census of India 2011 (Report). Office of the Registrar General. pp. 12–14, 49. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 August 2023. Retrieved 8 September 2018.
  70. ^ Polilan; K. Gunathogai; Lena Kumar; Tagadur Sampath; Mutthamizh; G. Picchai Vallinayagam; D. Anbunidhi; K. V. Neduncheraladhan, eds. (2019). Tiruvalluvar 2050 (in Tamil) (1 ed.). Chennai: Periyar Enthusiasts Group.
  71. ^ Sundaram, P. S. (1990). Tiruvalluvar Kural. Gurgaon: Penguin. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-14-400009-8.
  72. ^ "Dear Amish Tripathi, You're Wrong. Sati Was Never Just a 'Minor Practice' in India". News18. 31 October 2018. Archived from the original on 10 July 2021. Retrieved 10 July 2021.
  73. ^ Arokiaswami, M. (1956). The Kongu Country: Being the History of the Modern Districts of Coimbatore and Salem from the Earliest Times to the Coming of the British. University of Madras. Archived from the original on 15 July 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
  74. ^ "Is Coimbatore the next BPO city?". CNBC-TV18. 5 July 2008. Archived from the original on 19 January 2010. Retrieved 23 June 2010.
  75. ^ "German state keen to share expertise with Coimbatore". Business Line. 22 June 2007. Archived from the original on 8 January 2009. Retrieved 23 June 2010.
  76. ^ Harman, William P. (9 October 1992). The sacred marriage of a Hindu goddess. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 6. ISBN 978-8-1208-0810-2.
  77. ^ Fergusson, James (1997) [1910]. History of Indian and Eastern Architecture (3rd ed.). New Delhi: Low Price Publications. p. 309.
  78. ^ Ching, Francis D.K.; et al. (2007). A Global History of Architecture. New York: John Wiley and Sons. p. 762. ISBN 978-0-4712-6892-5.
  79. ^ Ching, Francis D.K. (1995). A Visual Dictionary of Architecture. New York: John Wiley and Sons. p. 253. ISBN 978-0-4712-8451-2.
  80. ^ Manickam, V. (2001). Kongu Nadu, a History Up to A.D. 1400. Makkal Veliyeedu. Archived from the original on 15 July 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
  81. ^ Molina, A.B.; Roa, V.N.; Van den Bergh, I.; Maghuyop, M.A. (2000). Advancing banana and plantain R & D in Asia and the Pacific. Biodiversity International. p. 84. ISBN 978-9-7191-7513-1.
  82. ^ Kalman, Bobbie (2009). India: The Culture. Crabtree Publishing Company. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-7787-9287-1.
  83. ^ "The Benefits of Eating Food on Banana Leaves". India Times. 9 March 2015. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
  84. ^ Nagarajan, Rema (26 March 2011). "Taste some cuisine from Kongunadu". Times of India. Archived from the original on 9 August 2017. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
  85. ^ Francis Hamilton; East India Company (1807). A journey from Madras through the countries of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar. T. Cadell and W. Davies. pp. 330–. Archived from the original on 20 June 2024. Retrieved 26 August 2020.
  86. ^ "Snack Street combines taste of street food with hygiene of restaurant". The Hindu. 19 July 2013. Archived from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 4 March 2016.
  87. ^ Achaya, K.T. (1 November 2003). The story of our food. Universities Press. p. 80. ISBN 978-81-7371-293-7.
  88. ^ Balasubramanian, D (21 October 2014). "Changes in the Indian menu over the ages". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 6 December 2014.
  89. ^ "Kovakkai, Kongunadu and Quizzing". The Hindu. 3 February 2011. Archived from the original on 17 October 2015. Retrieved 1 October 2015.
  90. ^ "Kongu Food Info by Times : Kongunadu Cuisine". The Times of India. 26 March 2011. Archived from the original on 5 November 2012.
  91. ^ Nagarajan, Rema (26 March 2011). "Taste some cuisine from Kongunadu". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 9 August 2017. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
  92. ^ Kannadasan, Akila (2 November 2012). "A rainy day". The Hindu. Retrieved 7 March 2016.
  93. ^ Nath, Parthasarathy (27 May 2013). "A taste of tradition". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 1 October 2015.
  94. ^ "Kovai's Roman connection". The Hindu. 8 January 2009. Archived from the original on 25 January 2009. Retrieved 9 June 2010.
  95. ^ "On the Roman Trail". The Hindu. 21 January 2008. Archived from the original on 10 November 2012. Retrieved 9 June 2010.
  96. ^ "A 2,500-year-old industrial estate". Rediff. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
  97. ^ Subramanian, T. S (28 January 2007). "Roman connection in Tamil Nadu". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 19 September 2013. Retrieved 28 October 2011.
  98. ^ Vanavarayar, Shankar (21 June 2010). "Scripting history". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 10 November 2012. Retrieved 9 May 2011.
  99. ^ M, Soundariya Preetha (30 June 2007). "Tale of an ancient road". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 3 July 2007. Retrieved 9 May 2011.
  100. ^ Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2021 (PDF) (Report). Directorate of Statistics, Department of Agriculture, Government of India. pp. 32–33. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
  101. ^ "Food Staple". National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 31 August 2023. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
  102. ^ "Turmeric at an all-time high price". The Economic Times. 29 December 2009. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
  103. ^ Sugracane in India (PDF) (Report). ICAR, Government of India. p. 64. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 August 2023. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
  104. ^ "Plantation crops". Department of Horticulture, Government of Tamil Nadu. Archived from the original on 31 August 2023. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
  105. ^ Yeboah, Salomey (8 March 2005). "Value Addition to Coffee in India". Cornell Education. Archived from the original on 19 September 2006. Retrieved 5 October 2005.
  106. ^ South Asia 2006. Taylor & Francis. 2005. p. 291. ISBN 978-1857433180. Retrieved 18 November 2012.
  107. ^ "Sericulture note". Government of Tamil Nadu. Archived from the original on 27 May 2012. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
  108. ^ "Tamil Nadu Poultry Industry Seeks Export Concessions". Financial Express. 28 June 2013. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 28 March 2015.
  109. ^ "India's Gems and Jewellery Market is Glittering". Resource Investor. Archived from the original on 26 September 2011. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
  110. ^ a b "How can India replicate the success of Tiruppur in 75 other places?". Business Standard. Archived from the original on 1 December 2023. Retrieved 1 November 2023.
  111. ^ "Lok Sabha Elections 2014: Erode has potential to become a textile heaven says Narendra Modi". DNA India. 17 April 2014. Archived from the original on 19 November 2015. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
  112. ^ "State wise number of Textile Mills". Press Information Bureau, Government of India. 7 August 2014. Archived from the original on 1 September 2023. Retrieved 23 January 2023.
  113. ^ "Murmurs on Tamil Nadu's bifurcation resurface". The New Indian Express. Archived from the original on 12 July 2021. Retrieved 1 July 2021.
  114. ^ PTI (4 August 2013). "India may have 50 states if all demands are conceded". The Hindu Businessline. Archived from the original on 27 May 2024. Retrieved 11 July 2021.
  115. ^ "BJP looks to downplay 'Kongu Nadu' controversy". Hindustan Times. 17 July 2021. Archived from the original on 18 July 2021. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
  116. ^ Venkataramakrishnan, Rohan (17 July 2021). "Kongu Nadu, North Bengal: Is the threat of bifurcation a go-to weapon for the BJP?". Scroll. Archived from the original on 25 July 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
  117. ^ "Caste organisation bats for Kongu Nadu". The Hindu. 17 July 2021. ISSN 0971-751X. Archived from the original on 17 July 2021. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kongu_Nadu&oldid=1248946075"