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Johnson solid

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In geometry, a Johnson solid, sometimes also known as a Johnson–Zalgaller solid, is a strictly convex polyhedron whose faces are regular polygons. They are sometimes defined to exclude the uniform polyhedrons. There are ninety-two solids with such a property: the first solids are the pyramids, cupolas. and a rotunda; some of the solids may be constructed by attaching with those previous solids, whereas others may not. These solids are named after mathematicians Norman Johnson and Victor Zalgaller.

Definition and background

Among these three polyhedra, only the first, the elongated square gyrobicupola, is a Johnson solid. The second, the stella octangula, is not convex, as some of its diagonals lie outside the shape. The third presents coplanar faces.

A Johnson solid is a convex polyhedron whose faces are all regular polygons.[1] Here, a polyhedron is said to be convex if the shortest path between any two of its vertices lies either within its interior or on its boundary, none of its faces are coplanar (meaning they do not share the same plane, and do not "lie flat"), and none of its edges are colinear (meaning they are not segments of the same line).[2][3] Although there is no restriction that any given regular polygon cannot be a face of a Johnson solid, some authors required that Johnson solids are not uniform. This means that a Johnson solid is not a Platonic solid, Archimedean solid, prism, or antiprism.[4][5] A convex polyhedron in which all faces are nearly regular, but some are not precisely regular, is known as a near-miss Johnson solid.[6]

The Johnson solid, sometimes known as Johnson–Zalgaller solid, was named after two mathematicians Norman Johnson and Victor Zalgaller.[7] Johnson (1966) published a list including ninety-two Johnson solids—excluding the five Platonic solids, the thirteen Archimedean solids, the infinitely many uniform prisms, and the infinitely many uniform antiprisms—and gave them their names and numbers. He did not prove that there were only ninety-two, but he did conjecture that there were no others.[8] Zalgaller (1969) proved that Johnson's list was complete.[9]

Naming and enumeration

Main article: List of Johnson solids
An example is triaugmented triangular prism. Here, it is constructed from triangular prism by joining three equilateral square pyramids onto each of its squares (tri-). The process of this construction known as "augmentation", making its first name is "triaugmented".

The naming of Johnson solids follows a flexible and precise descriptive formula that allows many solids to be named in multiple different ways without compromising the accuracy of each name as a description. Most Johnson solids can be constructed from the first few solids (pyramids, cupolae, and a rotunda), together with the Platonic and Archimedean solids, prisms, and antiprisms; the center of a particular solid's name will reflect these ingredients. From there, a series of prefixes are attached to the word to indicate additions, rotations, and transformations:[10]

  • Bi- indicates that two copies of the solid are joined base-to-base. For cupolae and rotundas, the solids can be joined so that either like faces (ortho-) or unlike faces (gyro-) meet. Using this nomenclature, a pentagonal bipyramid is a solid constructed by attaching two bases of pentagonal pyramids. Triangular orthobicupola is constructed by two triangular cupolas along their bases.
  • Elongated indicates a prism is joined to the base of the solid, or between the bases; gyroelongated indicates an antiprism. Augmented indicates another polyhedron, namely a pyramid or cupola, is joined to one or more faces of the solid in question.
  • Diminished indicates a pyramid or cupola is removed from one or more faces of the solid in question.
  • Gyrate indicates a cupola mounted on or featured in the solid in question is rotated such that different edges match up, as in the difference between ortho- and gyrobicupolae.
Examples of para- and meta- can be found in parabiaugmented hexagonal prism and metabiaugmented hexagonal prism

The last three operations—augmentation, diminution, and gyration—can be performed multiple times for certain large solids. Bi- & Tri- indicate a double and triple operation respectively. For example, a bigyrate solid has two rotated cupolae, and a tridiminished solid has three removed pyramids or cupolae. In certain large solids, a distinction is made between solids where altered faces are parallel and solids where altered faces are oblique. Para- indicates the former, that the solid in question has altered parallel faces, and meta- the latter, altered oblique faces. For example, a parabiaugmented solid has had two parallel faces augmented, and a metabigyrate solid has had two oblique faces gyrated.[10]

The last few Johnson solids have names based on certain polygon complexes from which they are assembled. These names are defined by Johnson with the following nomenclature:[10]

  • A lune is a complex of two triangles attached to opposite sides of a square.
  • Spheno- indicates a wedgelike complex formed by two adjacent lunes. Dispheno- indicates two such complexes.
  • Hebespheno- indicates a blunt complex of two lunes separated by a third lune.
  • Corona is a crownlike complex of eight triangles.
  • Megacorona is a larger crownlike complex of twelve triangles.
  • The suffix -cingulum indicates a belt of twelve triangles.

The enumeration of Johnson solids may be denoted as , where denoted the list's enumeration (an example is denoted the first Johnson solid, the equilateral square pyramid).[7] The following is the list of ninety-two Johnson solids, with the enumeration followed according to the list of Johnson (1966):

  1. Equilateral square pyramid
  2. Pentagonal pyramid
  3. Triangular cupola
  4. Square cupola
  5. Pentagonal cupola
  6. Pentagonal rotunda
  7. Elongated triangular pyramid
  8. Elongated square pyramid
  9. Elongated pentagonal pyramid
  10. Gyroelongated square pyramid
  11. Gyroelongated pentagonal pyramid
  12. Triangular bipyramid
  13. Pentagonal bipyramid
  14. Elongated triangular bipyramid
  15. Elongated square bipyramid
  16. Elongated pentagonal bipyramid
  17. Gyroelongated square bipyramid
  18. Elongated triangular cupola
  19. Elongated square cupola
  20. Elongated pentagonal cupola
  21. Elongated pentagonal rotunda
  22. Gyroelongated triangular cupola
  23. Gyroelongated square cupola
  24. Gyroelongated pentagonal cupola
  25. Gyroelongated pentagonal rotunda
  26. Gyrobifastigium
  27. Triangular orthobicupola
  28. Square orthobicupola
  29. Square gyrobicupola
  30. Pentagonal orthobicupola
  31. Pentagonal gyrobicupola
  32. Pentagonal orthocupolarotunda
  33. Pentagonal gyrocupolarotunda
  34. Pentagonal orthobirotunda
  35. Elongated triangular orthobicupola
  36. Elongated triangular gyrobicupola
  37. Elongated square gyrobicupola
  38. Elongated pentagonal orthobicupola
  39. Elongated pentagonal gyrobicupola
  40. Elongated pentagonal orthocupolarotunda
  41. Elongated pentagonal gyrocupolarotunda
  42. Elongated pentagonal orthobirotunda
  43. Elongated pentagonal gyrobirotunda
  44. Gyroelongated triangular bicupola
  45. Gyroelongated square bicupola
  46. Gyroelongated pentagonal bicupola
  47. Gyroelongated pentagonal cupolarotunda
  48. Gyroelongated pentagonal birotunda
  49. Augmented triangular prism
  50. Biaugmented triangular prism
  51. Triaugmented triangular prism
  52. Augmented pentagonal prism
  53. Biaugmented pentagonal prism
  54. Augmented hexagonal prism
  55. Parabiaugmented hexagonal prism
  56. Metabiaugmented hexagonal prism
  57. Triaugmented hexagonal prism
  58. Augmented dodecahedron
  59. Parabiaugmented dodecahedron
  60. Metabiaugmented dodecahedron
  61. Triaugmented dodecahedron
  62. Metabidiminished icosahedron
  63. Tridiminished icosahedron
  64. Augmented tridiminished icosahedron
  65. Augmented truncated tetrahedron
  66. Augmented truncated cube
  67. Biaugmented truncated cube
  68. Augmented truncated dodecahedron
  69. Parabiaugmented truncated dodecahedron
  70. Metabiaugmented truncated dodecahedron
  71. Triaugmented truncated dodecahedron
  72. Gyrate rhombicosidodecahedron
  73. Parabigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron
  74. Metabigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron
  75. Trigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron
  76. Diminished rhombicosidodecahedron
  77. Paragyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron
  78. Metagyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron
  79. Bigyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron
  80. Parabidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron
  81. Metabidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron
  82. Gyrate bidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron
  83. Tridiminished rhombicosidodecahedron
  84. Snub disphenoid
  85. Snub square antiprism
  86. Sphenocorona
  87. Augmented sphenocorona
  88. Sphenomegacorona
  89. Hebesphenomegacorona
  90. Disphenocingulum
  91. Bilunabirotunda
  92. Triangular hebesphenorotunda

Some of the Johnson solids may be categorized as elementary polyhedra. This means the polyhedron cannot be separated by a plane to create two small convex polyhedra with regular faces; examples of Johnson solids are the first six Johnson solids—square pyramid, pentagonal pyramid, triangular cupola, square cupola, pentagonal cupola, and pentagonal rotunda—tridiminished icosahedron, parabidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron, tridiminished rhombicosidodecahedron, snub disphenoid, snub square antiprism, sphenocorona, sphenomegacorona, hebesphenomegacorona, disphenocingulum, bilunabirotunda, and triangular hebesphenorotunda.[8][11] The other Johnson solids are composite polyhedron because they are constructed by attaching some elementary polyhedra.[12]

Properties

As the definition above, a Johnson solid is a convex polyhedron with regular polygons as their faces. However, there are several properties possessed by each of them.

See also

References

  1. ^ Diudea, M. V. (2018). Multi-shell Polyhedral Clusters. Carbon Materials: Chemistry and Physics. Vol. 10. Springer. p. 39. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-64123-2. ISBN 978-3-319-64123-2.
  2. ^ Litchenberg, Dorovan R. (1988). "Pyramids, Prisms, Antiprisms, and Deltahedra". The Mathematics Teacher. 81 (4): 261–265. doi:10.5951/MT.81.4.0261. JSTOR 27965792.
  3. ^ Boissonnat, J. D.; Yvinec, M. (June 1989). "Probing a scene of non convex polyhedra". Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Symposium on Computational Geometry. pp. 237–246. doi:10.1145/73833.73860. ISBN 0-89791-318-3.
  4. ^ Todesco, Gian Marco (2020). "Hyperbolic Honeycomb". In Emmer, Michele; Abate, Marco (eds.). Imagine Math 7: Between Culture and Mathematics. Springer. p. 282. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-42653-8. ISBN 978-3-030-42653-8.
  5. ^ Williams, Kim; Monteleone, Cosino (2021). Daniele Barbaro's Perspective of 1568. Springer. p. 23. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-76687-0. ISBN 978-3-030-76687-0.
  6. ^ Kaplan, Craig S.; Hart, George W. (2001). "Symmetrohedra: Polyhedra from Symmetric Placement of Regular Polygons" (PDF). Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science: 21–28.
  7. ^ a b Uehara, Ryuhei (2020). Introduction to Computational Origami: The World of New Computational Geometry. Springer. p. 62. doi:10.1007/978-981-15-4470-5. ISBN 978-981-15-4470-5.
  8. ^ a b Johnson, Norman (1966). "Convex Solids with Regular Faces". Canadian Journal of Mathematics. 18: 169–200. doi:10.4153/CJM-1966-021-8.
  9. ^ Zalgaller, Victor A. (1969). Convex Polyhedra with Regular Faces. Consultants Bureau.
  10. ^ a b c Berman, Martin (1971). "Regular-faced convex polyhedra". Journal of the Franklin Institute. 291 (5): 329–352. doi:10.1016/0016-0032(71)90071-8. MR 0290245.
  11. ^ Hartshorne, Robin (2000). Geometry: Euclid and Beyond. Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics. Springer-Verlag. p. 464. ISBN 9780387986500.
  12. ^ Timofeenko, A. V. (2010). "Junction of Non-composite Polyhedra" (PDF). St. Petersburg Mathematical Journal. 21 (3): 483–512. doi:10.1090/S1061-0022-10-01105-2.
  13. ^ Fredriksson, Albin (2024). "Optimizing for the Rupert property". The American Mathematical Monthly. 131 (3): 255–261. arXiv:2210.00601. doi:10.1080/00029890.2023.2285200.
  14. ^ Cromwell, Peter R. (1997). Polyhedra. Cambridge University Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-521-55432-9.
  15. ^ Grünbaum, Branko (2009). "An enduring error" (PDF). Elemente der Mathematik. 64 (3): 89–101. doi:10.4171/EM/120. MR 2520469. Reprinted in Pitici, Mircea, ed. (2011). The Best Writing on Mathematics 2010. Princeton University Press. pp. 18–31.
  16. ^ Lando, Sergei K.; Zvonkin, Alexander K. (2004). Graphs on Surfaces and Their Applications. Springer. p. 114. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-38361-1. ISBN 978-3-540-38361-1.
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