Jump to content

Islam in England

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Historical population
YearPop.±%
2001 1,524,887—    
2011 2,660,116+74.4%
2021 3,801,186+42.9%
Religious affiliation was not recorded prior to 2001.
The Grand Mosque of Bradford is the largest mosque by capacity in the United Kingdom.

Islam in England is the second largest religion after Christianity.[1] Most Muslims are immigrants from South Asia (in particular Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and India) or descendants of immigrants from that region. Many others are from Muslim-dominated regions such as the Middle East, Afghanistan, Malaysia and Somalia, and other parts of African countries such as Nigeria, Uganda and Sierra Leone.[2] There are also many White Muslims in the country, of which most have Slavic and Balkan backgrounds (Bosnian, Macedonian, Montenegrin, Bulgarian, etc.), as well as some ethnic English converts.

According to the 2011 census, 2.7 million Muslims lived in England and Wales, up by almost 1 million from the previous census, where they formed 5.0% of the general population[3] and 9.1% of children under the age of five.[4]

According to the latest 2021 United Kingdom census, 3,801,186 Muslims live in England, or 6.7% of the population. The Muslim population again grew by over a million compared to the previous census.[5][6]

History

[edit]
See also: List of English words of Arabic origin

Middle Ages

[edit]
See also: Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe
A mancus / gold dinar of king Offa, copied from the dinars of the Abbasid Caliphate (774); it includes the Arabic text Muhammad is the Apostle of Allah, a line from the Shahada.

Although Islam is generally thought of as a contemporary arrival in England, Muslims have been trading and exchanging ideas with the English for centuries.

An early example is the decision of Offa, the 8th-century King of Mercia (one of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms existing at that time), to have a coin minted with an Islamic inscription – largely a copy of coins issued by a contemporary Muslim ruler, Caliph Al-Mansur. These coins may have been minted simply for prestige or to facilitate trade with the expanding Caliphate of Córdoba, as Islamic gold dinars were the most important coinage in the Mediterranean at the time. Offa's coin looked enough like the original that it would be readily accepted in southern Europe, while at the same time his own name was clearly visible.[7]

References to Britain are also found in early Islamic geographical literature, such as the 9th century work of Ahmad ibn Rustah, which describes the islands of "Bratiniya".[8]

Muslim scholarship, especially early Islamic philosophy and Islamic science, was well known through Latin translation among the learned in England by 1386, when Geoffrey Chaucer was writing. In the Prologue to the Canterbury Tales, there is among the pilgrims wending their way to Canterbury a 'Doctour of Phisyk' whose learning included Rhazes (Al-Razi), Avicenna (Ibn Sina, Arabic ابن سينا) and Averroes (Ibn Rushd, Arabic ابن رشد). In the Pardoner's Tale, Chaucer mentions part of Avicenna's work concerning poisons.[9] Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine (1025), in Latin translation, was a standard text for medical students up until the 18th century.[10] Roger Bacon, one of the earliest European advocates of the scientific method,[11] is known to have studied the works of several early Muslim philosophers.[12][13] In particular, his work on optics in the 13th century was influenced by the Book of Optics (1021) by Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen).[14]

Professor John Makdisi's article "The Islamic Origins of the Common Law", published in the North Carolina Law Review,[15] suggests that English common law was inspired by medieval Islamic law.[16] Makdisi drew comparisons between the "royal English contract protected by the action of debt" and the "Islamic Aqd", the "English assize of novel disseisin" (a petty assize adopted in the 1166 at the Assizes of Clarendon) and the "Islamic Istihqaq", and the "English jury" and the "Islamic Lafif" in the classical Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence, and argued that these institutions were transmitted to England by the Normans,[citation needed] "through the close connection between the Norman kingdoms of Roger II in Sicily — ruling over a conquered Islamic administration — and Henry II in England."[17] Makdisi also argued that the "law schools known as Inns of Court" in England (which he asserts are parallel to Madrasahs) may have also originated from Islamic law.[citation needed] He states that the methodology of legal precedent and reasoning by analogy (Qiyas) are also similar in both the Islamic and common law systems.[18] Other legal scholars such as Monica Gaudiosi, Gamal Moursi Badr and A. Hudson have argued that the English trust and agency institutions, which were introduced by Crusaders, may have been adapted from the Islamic Waqf and Hawala institutions they came across in the Middle East.[19][20][21] Paul Brand also notes parallels between the Waqf and the trusts used to establish Merton College by Walter de Merton, who had connections with the Knights Templar, but Brand also points out that the Knights Templar were primarily concerned with fighting the Muslims rather than learning from them, making it less likely that they would imitate Muslim legal institutions.[16]

Early modern period

[edit]
See also: Islamic Civilization during the European Renaissance

The first English convert to Islam mentioned by name is John Nelson.[22] The 16th-century writer Richard Hakluyt claimed he was forced to convert, though he mentions in the same story other Englishmen who had converted willingly.

This king had a son which was a ruler in an island called Gerbi, whereunto arrived an English ship called the Green Dragon, of the which was master one M. Blonket, who, having a very unhappy boy on that ship, and understanding that whosoever would turn Turk should be well entertained of the a yeoman of our Queen's guard, whom the king's son had enforced to turn Turk; his name was John Nelson.[23]

Portrait of Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud, a Moorish ambassador to Queen Elizabeth I in 1600

Captain John Ward of Kent was one of a number of English sailors who became pirates based in the Maghreb and also converted to Islam (see also Barbary pirates).

Unitarians became interested in the faith, and Henry Stubbe wrote so favourably about Islam that it is thought he too had converted to the faith.

From 1609 to 1616, England lost 466 ships to Barbary pirates, who sold the passengers into slavery in North Africa.[24] In 1625, it was reported that Lundy, an island in the Bristol Channel which had been a pirate lair for much of the previous half century, had been occupied by three Ottoman pirates who were threatening to burn Ilfracombe; Algerine rovers were using the island as a base in 1635, although the island had itself been attacked and plundered by a Spanish fleet in 1633.[25] In 1627, Barbary pirates under command of the Dutch renegade Jan Janszoon operating from the Moroccan port of Salé occupied Lundy, before they were expelled by Sir John Pennington.[25][26] During this time there were reports of captured slaves being sent to Algiers and of the Islamic flag flying over Lundy.[27][28]

The Muslim Moors had a noticeable influence on the works of George Peele and William Shakespeare. Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele's The Battle of Alcazar and Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, Titus Andronicus and Othello, which featured a Moorish Othello as its title character. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorish delegations from Morocco to Elizabethan England around 1600.[29] A portrait was painted of one of the Moorish ambassadors, Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud ben Mohammed Anoun, who had come to promote an Anglo-Moroccan alliance.

Turbans were worn in Renaissance England.[30] While friendly relations were formed between England and the Islamic civilizations of the Middle East in the early 16th century, Persian and Turkish style fashions were sometimes worn by the higher classes as a form of party or fancy dress.

Elizabeth I of England was one of the earliest British monarchs to establish relations, alliances and trade with Muslim majority countries.

Diplomatic relations were also established with the Ottoman Empire with the chartering of the Levant Company and the dispatch of the first English ambassador to the Porte, William Harborne, in 1578.[31] For the first time, a Treaty of Commerce was signed in 1580.[32] Numerous envoys were dispatched in both directions and epistolar exchanges occurred between Elizabeth and Sultan Murad III.[31] In one correspondence, Murad entertained the notion that Islam and Protestantism had "much more in common than either did with Roman Catholicism, as both rejected the worship of idols", and argued for an alliance between England and the Ottoman Empire.[33] To the dismay of Catholic Europe, England exported tin and lead (for cannon-casting) and ammunition to the Ottoman Empire, and Elizabeth seriously discussed joint military operations with Murad III during the outbreak of war with Spain in 1585, as Francis Walsingham was lobbying for a direct Ottoman military involvement against the common Spanish enemy.[34][35] Although she never did receive any assistance from the Ottomans, her relations with the sultans did not waver.[35]

In 17th-century England, there was a "second wave" of interest in the study of Arabic science and Islamic philosophy. Arabic manuscripts were considered the key to a "treasure house" of ancient knowledge, which led to the founding of Arabic chairs at Oxford and Cambridge Universities, where Arabic was taught. A large collection of Arabic manuscripts were acquired, collected in places such as the Bodleian Library at Oxford. These Arabic manuscripts were sought after by natural philosophers for their research in subjects such as observational astronomy or mathematics, and also encompassed subjects ranging from science, religion, and medicine, to typography and garden plants.[36]

Besides scientific and philosophical literature, works of Arabic fictional literature were also translated into Latin and English during the 17th and 18th centuries. The most famous of these was the One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights), which was first translated into English in 1706 and has since then had a profound influence on English literature. Another famous work was Ibn Tufail's philosophical novel[37][38] Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, which was translated into Latin as Philosophus Autodidactus by Edward Pococke the Younger in 1671 and then into English by Simon Ockley in 1708. The English translation of Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, set on a desert island, may have inspired Daniel Defoe to write Robinson Crusoe, considered the first novel in English, in 1719.[39][40][41][42] Later translated literary works include Layla and Majnun and Ibn al-Nafis' Theologus Autodidactus.

Bengal (now Bangladesh and West Bengal), a province of Mughal India with a Muslim majority and Hindu minority, was annexed by the East India Company after the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The cheap textiles and other manufactured goods from Bengal directly contributed to the Industrial Revolution in England,[43][44][45][46] with the textiles produced in Bengal being used to support British industries such as textile manufacturing, aided by the invention of devices such as the spinning jenny.[43][44][45] With the establishment of Crown control in India after 1857, the British Empire ruled over a large Muslim population.[47][48][49]

By the time of Union with Scotland in 1707, only small numbers of Muslims were living in England. The first large group of Muslims to arrive, in the 18th century, were lascars (sailors) recruited from the Indian subcontinent (largely from the Bengal region) to work for the Honourable East India Company, many of whom settled down and took local wives (due to a lack of Indian women living in England at the time).[50] 38 lascars are reported arriving in British ports in 1760.[51][52] Between 1803 and 1813, there were more than 10,000 lascars from the Indian subcontinent visiting British port cities and towns.[53] By 1842, 3,000 lascars visited the UK annually, and by 1855, 12,000 lascars were arriving annually in British ports. In 1873, 3,271 lascars arrived in Britain.[54] Throughout the early 19th century lascars visited Britain at a rate of 1,000 every year,[53] which increased to a rate of 10,000 to 12,000 every year throughout the late 19th century.[55][56]

Due to the majority being lascars, the earliest Muslim communities were found in port towns. Naval cooks also came, many of them from the Sylhet Division of what is now Bangladesh. One of the most famous early Muslim immigrants to England was Sake Dean Mahomet, a captain of the East India Company army who in 1810 founded London's first Indian restaurant, the Hindoostane Coffee House. He is also reputed for introducing shampoo and therapeutic massage to the United Kingdom.[57]

Modern era

[edit]

By 1911, the British Empire had a Muslim population of 94 million, larger than the empire's 58 million Christian population.[49] By the 1920s, the British Empire included roughly half of the world's Muslim population.[48] More than 400,000 Muslim soldiers of the British Indian Army fought for Britain during World War I, where 62,060 were killed in action,[58] and half a million Muslim soldiers of the British Indian Army fought for Britain against the Nazis in World War II.[59] David Lloyd George, British Prime Minister from 1916 to 1922, stated: "we are the greatest Mahomedan power in the world and one-fourth of the population of the British Empire is Mahomedan. There have been no more loyal adherents to the throne and no more effective and loyal supporters of the Empire in its hour of trial." This statement was later reiterated by Gandhi in 1920.[47]

Muslim mass immigration to Britain began after World War II, as a result of the destruction and labour shortages caused by the war.[60][61] In 1951 there were around 21,000 Muslims in Britain.[62][63] Muslim migrants from former British colonies, predominantly India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh,[60] were recruited in large numbers by government and businesses to rebuild the country.[64] Large numbers of doctors recruited from India and Pakistan, encouraged by health minister Enoch Powell in the early 1960s, also played a key role in the establishment of the NHS health service.[65]

British Asians (both Muslim and non-Muslim) faced increased discrimination following Enoch Powell's Rivers of Blood speech and the establishment of the National Front in the late 1960s. This included overt racism in the form of Paki bashing, predominantly from white power skinheads, the National Front, and the British National Party, throughout the 1970s and 1980s.[66] Drawing inspiration from the civil rights movement, the black power movement, and the anti-apartheid movement, young British Pakistani and British Bangladeshi activists began a number of anti-racist Asian youth movements in the 1970s and 1980s, including the Bradford Youth Movement in 1977, the Bangladeshi Youth Movement following the murder of Altab Ali in 1978, and the Newham Youth Movement following the murder of Akhtar Ali Baig in 1980.[67]

Demography

[edit]

The settlements with large number of Muslims are Bradford, Luton, Blackburn, Birmingham, London and Dewsbury. There are also high numbers in High Wycombe, Aylesbury, Slough, Leicester, Manchester and the mill towns of Northern England.

Muslim population in English local authority areas.
  0.0%-0.9%
  1%-1.9%
  2%-4.9%
  5%-9.9%
  10%-19.9%
  20% and more

The local authorities with a Muslim population greater than 10 percent as of 2021 were:

Top 25 Local Authorities (2021 Census)
Local authority Population Per cent
London Borough of Tower Hamlets 123,912 39.93%
Blackburn with Darwen 54,146 34.99%
London Borough of Newham 122,146 34.80%
Luton 74,191 32.94%
London Borough of Redbridge 97,068 31.29%
City of Bradford 166,846 30.53%
Birmingham 341,811 29.85%
Slough 46,661 29.44%
Pendle 24,900 26.00%
Metropolitan Borough of Oldham 59,031 24.38%
Leicester 86,443 23.45%
Manchester 122,962 22.28%
London Borough of Barking and Dagenham 53,389 24.40%
London Borough of Waltham Forest 60,157 21.60%
London Borough of Brent 72,574 21.40%
Bolton 58,997 19.93%
Rochdale 42,121 18.82%
City of Westminster 40,873 20.00%
London Borough of Ealing 68,907 18.80%
Kirklees 80,046 18.48%
London Borough of Enfield 61,477 18.60%
Preston 23,825 16.12%
London Borough of Hounslow 48,028 16.70%
London Borough of Camden 33,380 16.10%
Hyndburn 12,049 14.65%

Most large cities have one area that is majority Muslim even if the rest of the city has a fairly small Muslim population; see, for example, Harehills in Leeds. In addition, it is possible to find small areas that are almost entirely Muslim: for example, Savile Town in Dewsbury.[68]

In September 2009, the ONS published information showing that Mohammed (or variations of it) was the third most popular boys' name in England and Wales, and the most popular name in London.[1]

Some 38% of England's Muslims live in London, where 1,012,823 identified as Muslim in 2011, representing 12.4% of London's population of 8,173,941.[3]

Denominations

[edit]

Sunni

[edit]

Largest in United Kingdom which majority being Hanafi

Shia

[edit]

Shia mosques are usually Twelvers but cater to Zaydis and Ismailis also and they usually include facilities for women. There are 200,000 Shias in Britain from Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey and elsewhere.[69] Various Shia mosques include the Husseini Islamic Centre in Stanmore, Harrow which acts as one of the main Shia Muslim mosques in Britain. Others include Al Masjid ul Husseini in Northolt, Ealing, Imam Khoei Islamic Centre in Queens Park, Brent & Islamic Centre of England, Maida Vale.

Demographics

[edit]

Geographical distribution

[edit]
English Muslims by Region
Region 2021[70] 2011[71] 2001[72]
Number % Number % Number %
Greater London 1,318,754 15.0% 1,012,823 12.4% 607,083 8.5%
West Midlands 569,963 9.6% 376,152 6.7% 216,184 4.1%
North West 563,105 7.6% 356,458 5.1% 204,261 3.0%
Yorkshire and the Humber 442,533 8.1% 326,050 6.2% 189,089 3.8%
South East 309,067 3.3% 201,651 2.3% 108,725 1.4%
East 234,744 3.3% 148,341 2.5% 78,931 1.5%
East Midlands 210,766 4.3% 140,649 3.1% 70,224 1.7%
South West 80,152 1.4% 51,228 1.0% 23,465 0.5%
North East 72,102 2.7% 46,764 1.8% 26,925 1.1%
 England 3,801,186 6.7% 2,660,116 5.0% 1,524,887 3.1%

Ethnic group

[edit]
Sadiq Khan, a British Pakistani and the first Muslim elected as Mayor of London.

According to the 2011 census, 2.7 million Muslims live in England and Wales, where they form 5.0% of the population.[3]

English Muslims by Ethnic group
Ethnic group 2001 2011 2021
Number % Number % Number %
Asian 1,125,420 73.80 1,805,375 67.87 2,515,133 66.17
– Pakistani 650,516 42.66 1,017,463 38.25 1,454,944 38.28
– Bangladeshi 254,704 16.70 392,636 14.76 579,117 15.24
– Indian 131,098 8.60 195,952 7.37 245,681 6.46
– Chinese 735 0.05 7,802 0.29 1,800 0.05
– Other Asian 88,367 5.79 191,522 7.20 233,591 6.15
Black 104,714 6.87 267,294 10.05 408,320 10.74
– African 94,665 6.21 203,774 7.66 370,967 9.76
– Caribbean 4,445 0.29 7,294 0.27 7,105 0.19
– Other Black 5,604 0.37 56,226 2.11 30,248 0.80
White 177,231 11.62 206,982 7.78 220,880 5.81
– British 61,513 4.03 75,008 2.82 87,889 2.31
– Irish 870 0.05 1,872 0.07 1,339 0.04
– Roma 2,012 0.05
– Gypsy and Irish Traveller 361 0.01 444 0.01
– Other White 114,848 7.53 129,661 4.87 129,196 3.40
Mixed 62,496 4.10 100,383 3.77 138,297 3.64
– White and Asian 29,663 1.95 48,636 1.83 54,938 1.45
– White and Black African 10,209 0.67 15,279 0.57 22,365 0.59
– White and Black Caribbean 1,340 0.1 5,279 0.20 5,348 0.14
– Other Mixed 21,284 1.40 31,189 1.17 55,646 1.46
Other 280,082 10.53 518,556 13.64
– Arab 170,300 6.40 267,727 7.04
– Other Ethnic group 55,026 3.61 109,782 4.13 250,829 6.60
TOTAL 1,524,887 100.0 2,660,116 100.0 3,801,186 100.0

Pakistanis

[edit]
See also: British Pakistanis

The single largest group of Muslims in England and Wales are of Pakistani descent. Pakistanis from Mirpur District were one of the first South Asian Muslim communities to permanently settle in the United Kingdom, arriving in Birmingham and Bradford in the late 1930s. Immigration from Mirpur grew from the late 1950s, accompanied by immigration from other parts of Pakistan especially from Punjab which included cities like Sialkot, Jhelum, Gujar Khan and Gujrat and also from the north-west Punjab including the Chhachhi Pathans from Attock District, and some from villages of Ghazi, Nowshera and Peshawar. There is also a fairly large Pakistani community from Kenya and Uganda found in London. People of Pakistani extraction are particularly notable in West Midlands (Birmingham), West Yorkshire (Bradford), London (Waltham Forest, Newham), Lancashire/Greater Manchester, and several industrial towns like Luton, Slough, High Wycombe and Oxford.

Bangladeshis

[edit]
See also: British Bangladeshi

People of Bangladeshi descent are one of the largest Muslim communities (after Pakistanis), 16.8% of Muslims in England and Wales are of Bangladeshi descent, the ethnic group in the UK with the largest proportion of people following a single religion, being 92% Muslim.[73] Majority of these Muslim come from the Sylhet region of Bangladesh, mainly concentrated in London (Tower Hamlets, Newham and Redbridge), Luton, Birmingham and Oldham. The Bangladeshi Muslim community in London form 24% of the Muslim population, larger than any other ethnic group.[74]

Initial limited mosque availability meant that prayers were conducted in small rooms of council flats until the 1980s when more and larger facilities became available. Some synagogues and community buildings were turned into mosques and existing mosques began to expand their buildings. This process has continued down to the present day with the East London Mosque recently expanding into a large former car park where the London Muslim Centre is now used for prayers, recreational facilities and housing.[75][76] Most people regard themselves as part of the ummah, and their identity based on their religion rather than their ethnic group.[77] Cultural aspects of a 'Bengali Islam' are seen as superstition and as un-Islamic.[77] The identity is far stronger in comparison to the native land.

Other groups also attract a few people, the Salafi – who view the teachings of the first generations as the correct one,[78] and appeals to younger Muslims as a way to differentiate themselves towards their elders.[75][79] Other large groups include another Sunni movement, the Fultoli movement (initiated by Abdul Latif Chowdhury), and the Tablighi Jamaat – which is a missionary and revival movement,[80] and avoids political attention. All these groups work to stimulate Islamic identity among local Bengalis or Muslims and particularly focus on the younger members of the communities.[76][81][82]

Indians

[edit]
See also: British Indian

8% of Muslims in England and Wales are of Indian descent, especially those who are from Gujarat, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The Gujarati Muslims from Surat and Bharuch districts in India started to arrive from the 1930s, settling in the towns of Dewsbury and Batley in Yorkshire and parts of Lancashire. There are large numbers of Gujarati Muslims in Dewsbury, Blackburn (inc. Darwen), Bolton, Preston, Nuneaton, Gloucester and London (Newham, Waltham Forest and Hackney). Immigration of Muslims into UK, was primarily started off by Indians during the colonial rule.

Somalis

[edit]
See also: Somalis in the United Kingdom

The United Kingdom, with 43,532 Somalia-born residents in 2001,[83] and an estimated 101,000 in 2008,[84] is home to the largest Somali community in Europe. A 2009 estimate by Somali community organisations puts the Somali population figure at 90,000 residents.[85] Although most Somalis in the UK are recent arrivals, the first Somali immigrants were seamen and traders who arrived and settled in port cities in the late 19th century.[85] Established Somali communities are found in Bristol, Liverpool and London, and newer ones have formed in Leicester, Manchester and Sheffield.[86][87] It has been estimated that between 7,000 and 9,000 Somalis live in Liverpool.[88][89]

Turks

[edit]
Main article: Turks in the United Kingdom

Turks first began to emigrate in large numbers from the island of Cyprus for work and then again when Turkish Cypriots were forced to leave their homes during the Cyprus conflict.[citation needed] Turks then began to come from Turkey for economic reasons. Recently, smaller groups of Turks have begun to immigrate to the United Kingdom from other European countries.[90] As of 2011, there is a total of about 500,000 people of Turkish origin in the UK,[91] made up of approximately 150,000 Turkish nationals and about 300,000 Turkish Cypriots.[92] Furthermore, in recent years, there has been a growing number of ethnic Turks with Bulgarian, German, Greek, Macedonian, and Romanian citizenship who have also migrated to the United Kingdom.[92] The majority live in London.

White (European)

[edit]
Muhammad Marmaduke Pickthall, author of The Meaning of the Glorious Koran.

The 2001 census stated that there were 179,409 Muslims who described themselves as 'white' in the 2001 census.[93] About one third of white Muslims are of White Slavic and Balkan Muslim origin, and would likely have originated from locations such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Adyghe, Chechnya, Albania, Macedonia, and Bulgaria.[93] Another one third have origins in Turkey, the Middle East and North Africa. The remainder of white Muslims identified themselves as White British and White Irish, including converts.[93]

Nigerian

[edit]

There are also a number of Muslim immigrants in England that arrived from Nigeria. Nigerian Muslims in the UK are represented by several community organizations, including the Nigeria Muslim forum, which is affiliated with the Council of Nigerian Muslim Organisations in UK and Ireland (CNMO) and the Muslim Council of Britain (MCB).[94]

Maghrebis

[edit]
Main article: Maghreb

Although data is short, findings indicate Maghrebis make up a substantial community in Europe and England. Britain has long ties with Maghrebis, through contact with the Moors. Nevertheless, Britain has a far lower count of Maghrebis in comparison to France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Spain, where the majority of Muslims are Maghrebi.[95]

Conflicts

[edit]
See also: Terrorism in the United Kingdom

Social disturbance began in the Muslim community in England in 1988 with the publication of the satirical novel The Satanic Verses in London. Ayatollah Khomeini condemned the book with a fatwa in 1989.[96] The Satanic Verses controversy led to Muslim men first in Bolton[97] and then in Bradford[98] organised book-burnings.

The 7 July 2005 London bombings were a series of coordinated blasts that hit the public transport system during the morning rush hour, killing 52 people and also the four bombers. The latter were British Muslims, three of Pakistani and one of Jamaican heritage. They were apparently motivated by Britain's involvement in the Iraq War and other conflicts.[99][100] In response, Dr. Afifi al-Akiti, the KFAS Fellow in Islamic Studies at the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies, and the Islamic Centre Lecturer in Islamic Studies in the Faculty of Theology – University of Oxford, wrote an internationally acclaimed Fatwa against terrorism titled "Defending the Transgressed by Censuring the Reckless against the Killing of Civilians".[101]

In May 2013, British soldier Lee Rigby was publicly killed in Woolwich, London. Two converts to Islam of Nigerian heritage were found guilty of the murder, one of them having claimed to be a soldier of Allah as his unsuccessful legal defence.[102]

In 2017, there were four terrorist attacks: the Westminster attack, the Manchester Arena bombing, the 2017 London Bridge attack and the Parsons Green train bombing.

Position in society

[edit]
Markazi Masjid in Savile Town.The Savile Town is a Muslim majority town in England with 93% being Asian Muslims[103]

Poverty

[edit]

According to analysis based on the 2001 census, Muslims in England face poor standards of housing, poorer levels of education and are more vulnerable to long-term illness,[104] and that Muslims in the UK had the highest rate of unemployment, the poorest health, the most disability and fewest educational qualifications among religious groups.[105] The figures were, to some extent, explained by the fact that Muslims were the least well-established group, having the youngest age profile.[105]

Conversely, Muslim Council of Britain estimates that there are more than 10,000 British Muslim millionaires.[106] There is a growing substantial British Muslim business community, led by multi-billionaires such as Sir Anwar Pervez.[107]

Education

[edit]

On a study of more than 13,000 young people, approximately 53% of British Muslims choose to attend university.[108] This is higher than the figure for Christians (45%) and Atheists (32%), but lower than the figure of Hindus and Sikhs, who score 77% and 63% respectively.[108]

Muslim schools regularly outperform those of other faiths. In 2015, Over half of Muslim schools have average of students achieving higher GCSEs (71%) than the national figure (64%).(needs better citation)[109]

Discrimination

[edit]
See also: Islamophobia in the United Kingdom

There have been cases of threats,[110] one alleged fatal attack,[111] and non-fatal attacks on Muslims and on Muslim targets, including attacks on Muslim graves[112] and mosques.[113] In January 2010, a report from the University of Exeter's European Muslim Research Centre noted that the number of anti-Muslim hate crimes has increased, ranging from "death threats and murder to persistent low-level assaults, such as spitting and name-calling," for which the media and politicians have been blamed with fueling anti-Muslim hatred.[114][115][116]

The British media has been criticised for propagating negative stereotypes of Muslims and fueling Islamophobic prejudice.[117] In 2006, several British cabinet ministers were criticised for helping to "unleash a public anti-Muslim backlash" by blaming the Muslim community over issues of integration despite a study commissioned by the Home Office on white and Asian-Muslim youths demonstrating otherwise: that Asian-Muslim youths "are in fact the most tolerant of all" and that white youths "have far more intolerant attitudes," concluding that the attitudes held by members of the white community was a greater "barrier to integration."[118][119] Another survey by Gallup in 2009 also found that the Muslim community claimed to feel more patriotic about Britain than the general British population as a whole,[120][121] while another survey found that Muslims assert that they support the role of Christianity in British life more so than British Christians themselves.[122] In January 2010, the British Social Attitudes Survey found that the general public "is far more likely to hold negative views of Muslims than of any other religious group," with "just one in four" feeling "positively about Islam," and a "majority of the country would be concerned if a mosque was built in their area, while only 15 per cent expressed similar qualms about the opening of a church."[123] The "scapegoating" of British Muslims by the media and politicians in the 21st century has been compared in the media to the rise of antisemitism in the early 20th century.[124]

Views on Islam in London

[edit]

A poll by the London Evening Standard in December 2007, which surveyed a range of the capital's communities, including Muslims, found that 49% of those surveyed considered Islam as generally intolerant, while 44% saw it as generally tolerant. A total of 51% felt that Muslims were isolated from other communities to a degree, with 12% believing that the majority of them were. A large majority (81% to 7%) believed that the most holy day in Islam, Eid, should not be officially celebrated by the British government, and 88% opposed Muslim teachers covering their faces at work (see British debate over veils). A majority (55%) wanted immigration of Muslims to be cut, with 33% wanting it cut greatly. Islam was seen as the cause of the 7 July attacks on the city in 2005 by 52% of the population, with 35% seeing it as a major factor. Views from the survey which were not in line with the largely negative views included that 71% would vote for a Muslim Mayor of London if they were the best candidate (with 16% against such a vote).[125]

Notable mosques

[edit]
Main article: List of mosques in the United Kingdom § England

In London

[edit]
The London Central Mosque, built in 1977.

Elsewhere

[edit]
Jamea Masjid in Preston, known for its architectural design.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b "Religion (2019)". ons.gov.uk. Retrieved 7 October 2022.
  2. ^ "Born Abroad - Countries of birth". bbc.co.uk. BBC. 2005-09-07. Retrieved 2008-02-16.
  3. ^ a b c "2011 Census: KS209EW Religion, local authorities in England and Wales". ons.gov.uk. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
  4. ^ The Daily Telegraph: "Almost a tenth of babies and toddlers in England and Wales are Muslim, census figures show" By Keith Perry January 10, 2013
  5. ^ "Religion, England and Wales - Office for National Statistics". www.ons.gov.uk. Retrieved 2022-11-30.
  6. ^ Milliken, David (2022-11-29). "England and Wales more ethnically mixed and less religious, census shows". Reuters. Retrieved 2022-11-30.
  7. ^ Gold imitation dinar of Offa Archived 2012-09-12 at archive.today, British Museum
  8. ^ Bernard Lewis (1957). "The Muslim Discovery of Europe". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 20 (1/3). Cambridge University Press: 409–416 [410]. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00061954. JSTOR 610392. S2CID 246638865.
  9. ^ Chaucer The Canterbury Tales Harmondsworth Penguin 1951 p280 and note p522
  10. ^ Ziauddin Sardar, Science in Islamic philosophy Archived 2009-05-05 at the Wayback Machine
  11. ^ Randall Noon (1992). Introduction to Forensic Engineering. CRC Press. ISBN 0849381029.
  12. ^ Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven John; Wallis, Faith: Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia, first edition, Routledge, 29 September 2005, ISBN 978-0-415-96930-7
  13. ^ Moorstein, Mark: Frameworks: Conflict in Balance, page 237, iUniverse, Inc., 9 June 2004, 308 pp, ISBN 978-0-595-31824-7
  14. ^ Lindberg, David C. (1996). Roger Bacon and the Origins of Perspectiva in the Middle Ages. Clarendon Press. p. 11. ISBN 9780198239925.
  15. ^ Makdisi, John A. (6 January 1999). "The Islamic Origins of the Common Law". North Carolina Law Review. 77 (5): 1635 – via University of North Carolina School of Law.
  16. ^ a b Mukul Devichand (24 September 2008). "Is English law related to Muslim law?". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-10-05.
  17. ^ Hussain, Jamila (2001). "Book Review: The Justice of Islam by Lawrence Rosen". Melbourne University Law Review. 30.
  18. ^ El-Gamal, Mahmoud A. (2006). Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice. Cambridge University Press. p. 16. ISBN 0-521-86414-3.
  19. ^ Gaudiosi, Monica M. (April 1988). "The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College". University of Pennsylvania Law Review. 136 (4): 1231–1261. doi:10.2307/3312162. JSTOR 3312162. S2CID 153149243.
  20. ^ Badr, Gamal Moursi (Spring 1978). "Islamic Law: Its Relation to Other Legal Systems". The American Journal of Comparative Law. 26 (2 – Proceedings of an International Conference on Comparative Law, Salt Lake City, Utah, February 24–25, 1977): 187–198 [196–8]. doi:10.2307/839667. JSTOR 839667.
  21. ^ Hudson, A. (2003). Equity and Trusts (3rd ed.). London: Cavendish Publishing. p. 32. ISBN 1-85941-729-9.
  22. ^ "History of Islam in the UK". BBC. Archived from the original on 2013-10-22. Retrieved 2013-10-20.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  23. ^ Voyager's Tales, 3, The voyage made to Tripolis in Barbary,1584, Richard Haklyut
  24. ^ Rees Davies, British Slaves on the Barbary Coast, BBC, 1 July 2003
  25. ^ a b "Lundy".
  26. ^ Konstam, Angus (2008). Piracy: the complete history. Osprey Publishing. p. 91. ISBN 978-1-84603-240-0. Retrieved 2011-04-15.
  27. ^ de Bruxelles, Simon (2007-02-28). "Pirates who got away with it". Study of sails on pirate ships. London. Archived from the original on March 2, 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-25.
  28. ^ Davies, Norman (1996). Europe a History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820171-7. Retrieved 2007-11-25.
  29. ^ Professor Nabil Matar (April 2004), Shakespeare and the Elizabethan Stage Moor, Sam Wanamaker Fellowship Lecture, Shakespeare's Globe Theatre]] (cf. Mayor of London (2006), Muslims in London Archived June 26, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, pp. 14-15, Greater London Authority)
  30. ^ Blanks, David R., ed. (1997). Images of the other: Europe and the Muslim world before 1700; [2nd Annual Conference on Cross-Cultural Encounters in the Mediterranean held at the American University in Cairo, 5 - 7 May, 1996]. Buḥūṯ al-Qāhira fī 'l-ʿulūm al-iǧtimāʿīya. Cairo: American Univ. in Cairo Pr. ISBN 978-977-424-388-2.
  31. ^ a b Kupperman, p.39
  32. ^ The Encyclopedia of world history by Peter N. Stearns, p.353. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
  33. ^ Kupperman, p.40
  34. ^ Kupperman, p.41
  35. ^ a b Nabil I. Matar, "Renaissance England and the Turban."
  36. ^ G. A. Russell (1994). The Arabick interest of the natural philosophers in seventeenth-century England. Brill Publishers. ISBN 90-04-09888-7.
  37. ^ Jon Mcginnis, Classical Arabic Philosophy: An Anthology of Sources, p. 284, Hackett Publishing Company, ISBN 0-87220-871-0.
  38. ^ Samar Attar, The Vital Roots of European Enlightenment: Ibn Tufayl's Influence on Modern Western Thought, Lexington Books, ISBN 0-7391-1989-3.[1]
  39. ^ Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980), Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an early Arabic impact on English literature, Al-Rashid House for Publication.
  40. ^ Cyril Glasse (2001), New Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 202, Rowman Altamira, ISBN 0-7591-0190-6.
  41. ^ Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357-377 [369].
  42. ^ Martin Wainwright, Desert island scripts, The Guardian, 22 March 2003.
  43. ^ a b Junie T. Tong (2016). Finance and Society in 21st Century China: Chinese Culture Versus Western Markets. CRC Press. p. 151. ISBN 978-1-317-13522-7.
  44. ^ a b John L. Esposito, ed. (2004). The Islamic World: Past and Present. Vol. 1: Abba - Hist. Oxford University Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-19-516520-3.
  45. ^ a b Indrajit Ray (2011). Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757-1857). Routledge. pp. 7–10. ISBN 978-1-136-82552-1.
  46. ^ Shombit Sengupta, Bengals plunder gifted the British Industrial Revolution, The Financial Express, February 8, 2010
  47. ^ a b David Motadel (2014), Islam and the European Empires, page 267, Oxford University Press
  48. ^ a b Francis Robinson (2001), The British Empire and the Muslim world, The Oxford History of the British Empire, volume 4, pages 398-420, Oxford University Press
  49. ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "British Empire" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 04 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
  50. ^ Fisher, Michael Herbert (2006). Counterflows to Colonialism: Indian Traveller and Settler in Britain 1600–1857. Orient Blackswan. pp. 111–9, 129–30, 140, 154–6, 160–8, 172, 181. ISBN 81-7824-154-4.
  51. ^ "Lascar lives and the east India company - Archaeology - University of Southampton". Archived from the original on 2020-10-23. Retrieved 2016-01-31.
  52. ^ Fisher, Michael Herbert (2006). Counterflows to Colonialism. Orient Blackswan. pp. 111–9, 129–30, 140, 154–6, 160–8, 181. ISBN 81-7824-154-4.
  53. ^ a b Fisher, Michael H. (2004). Counterflows to Colonialism: Indian Travellers and Settlers in Britain, 1600-1857. Delhi: Permanent Black. pp. 140, 154–6, 160–8, 172. ISBN 978-81-7824-154-8.
  54. ^ Ansari, Humayun (2004). The Infidel Within: The History of Muslims in Britain, 1800 to the Present. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 35. ISBN 1-85065-685-1.
  55. ^ Robinson-Dunn, Diane (February 2003). "Lascar Sailors and English Converts: The Imperial Port and Islam in late 19th-Century England". Seascapes, Littoral Cultures, and Trans-Oceanic Exchanges. Archived from the original on 2 August 2012. Retrieved 13 January 2009.
  56. ^ Behal, Rana P.; van der Linden, Marcel, eds. (2006). Coolies, Capital and Colonialism: Studies in Indian Labour History. Cambridge University Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-521-69974-7.
  57. ^ "Curry house founder is honoured". BBC News. 29 September 2005. Retrieved 2008-10-09.
  58. ^ The 'forgotten' army of 400,000 Muslim soldiers who fought for British freedom in World War I, Daily Mirror, 9 January 2017
  59. ^ Ziauddin Sardar (2012), Critical Muslim 2: The Idea of Islam, page 131, Oxford University Press
  60. ^ a b MariaCaterina La Barbera (2014), Identity and Migration in Europe: Multidisciplinary Perspectives, page 230, Springer Science+Business Media
  61. ^ Richard D. Hecht, Vincent F. Biondo (2010), Religion and Everyday Life and Culture, page 859, ABC-CLIO
  62. ^ "muslims in the 2001 Census of England and Wales: Gender and Economic Disadvantage".
  63. ^ "UK MUSLIM DEMOGRAPHICS (C-RE8-02527)". www.telegraph.co.uk. 4 February 2011. Retrieved 2022-12-13.
  64. ^ Muslim Migration to Europe Archived 2017-07-01 at the Wayback Machine, University of Minnesota, 17 June 2015
  65. ^ How migrants helped make the NHS, The Guardian, 18 June 2008
  66. ^ Nahid Afrose Kabir (2012), Young British Muslims, Edinburgh University Press
  67. ^ Timothy Peace (2015), European Social Movements and Muslim Activism: Another World but with Whom?, page 55, Springer Science+Business Media
  68. ^ "Development of an Estates Strategy". Archived from the original on 2007-09-29. Retrieved 2009-02-25. paragraph 4.3
  69. ^ Esther Addley (2003-06-28). "A glad day for mourning | World news". The Guardian. Retrieved 2013-10-20.
  70. ^ "TS030 - Religion Edit query". www.nomisweb.co.uk. Retrieved 2022-11-29.
  71. ^ "KS209EW (Religion) - Nomis - 2011". www.nomisweb.co.uk. Retrieved 2022-10-18.
  72. ^ "KS007 - Religion - Nomis - 2001". www.nomisweb.co.uk. Retrieved 2022-10-18.
  73. ^ "Ethnicity and identity". National Statistics. Retrieved 2008-07-21.
  74. ^ "2001 Census Profiles: Bangladeshis in London" (PDF). Greater London Authority. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 7, 2005. Retrieved 2004-08-01.
  75. ^ a b "Bangladeshi Diaspora in the UK: Some observations on socio-culturaldynamics, religious trends and transnational politics" (PDF). University of Surrey. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-09-23. Retrieved 2008-06-03.
  76. ^ a b "bdirectory: Islamist politics among Bangladeshis in the UK". David Garbin – Cronem, University of Surrey. Archived from the original on 2009-01-12. Retrieved 2008-07-27.
  77. ^ a b "Genetics, Religion and Identity: A Study of British Bangladeshis – 2004-2007" (PDF). School of Social Sciences – Cardiff University – funded by the Economic and Social Research Council. Retrieved 2008-09-15.
  78. ^ "Compendium of Muslim texts – Volume 3, Book 48, Number 819". University of Southern California. Retrieved 2008-08-16.
  79. ^ The Next Attack, By Daniel Benjamin Steven Simon, ISBN 0-8050-7941-6 – Page 55
  80. ^ M. Jawed Iqbal; Ebrahim Desai (9 June 2007). "Inviting to Islam". www.askimam.org. Archived from the original on 15 January 2009. Retrieved 2008-08-16.
  81. ^ "East London Mosque and London Muslim Centre". East London Mosque. Retrieved 2008-07-26.
  82. ^ "Bangladeshis in east London: from secular politics to Islam". Delwar Hussain – openDemocracy: free thinking for the world. Archived from the original on 2008-08-30. Retrieved 2008-07-27.
  83. ^ "Country-of-birth database". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Archived from the original on 2009-06-17. Retrieved 2009-01-25.
  84. ^ "Table 1.3: Estimated population resident in the United Kingdom, by foreign country of birth, 60 most common countries of birth, January 2008 to December 2008". Office for National Statistics. Archived from the original on 2011-06-05. Retrieved 2009-10-04. Figure given is the central estimate. See the source for 95 per cent confidence intervals.
  85. ^ a b Dissanayake, Samanthi (2008-12-04). "British Somalis play politics from afar". BBC News. Retrieved 2009-01-25.
  86. ^ Casciani, Dominic (2006-05-30). "Somalis' struggle in the UK". BBC News. Retrieved 2009-01-25.
  87. ^ "Born abroad: Somalia". BBC News. 2005-09-07. Retrieved 2009-01-25.
  88. ^ "Liverpool City Council/Liverpool PCT Equality Impact Assessment Template". Archived from the original (DOC) on April 8, 2010. Retrieved January 5, 2024.
  89. ^ "Integration of the Somali Community into Europe". Federation of Adult Education Associations. Archived from the original on 16 December 2009. Retrieved 3 February 2010.
  90. ^ Lytra & Baraç 2009, 60
  91. ^ Travis, Alan (1 August 2011). "UK immigration analysis needed on Turkish legal migration, say MPs". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2011-08-02. Retrieved 1 August 2011.
  92. ^ a b Home Affairs Committee 2011, Ev 34
  93. ^ a b c Peach, Ceri (July 2006). "Muslims in the 2001 Census of England and Wales: Gender and economic disadvantage". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 29 (4): 629–655. doi:10.1080/01419870600665284. ISSN 0141-9870.
  94. ^ "NMF".
  95. ^ Inbar, Efraim; Frisch, Hillel (January 2008). Radical Islam and International Security: Challenges and Responses. Routledge. ISBN 9780415444606.
  96. ^ "BBC ON THIS DAY | 14 | 1989: Ayatollah sentences author to death". BBC News. Retrieved 2013-10-20.
  97. ^ Robin Lustig; Martin Bailey; Simon de Bruxelles; Ian Mather (18 February 1989). "War of the Word". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 8 October 2014. Retrieved 7 July 2014.
  98. ^ Winder, Robert. Bloody Foreigners: The Story of Immigration to Britain. Abacus, London: 2013: p. 414
  99. ^ "Indepth | London Attacks". BBC News. Retrieved 2013-10-20.
  100. ^ "Al-Qaeda commander linked to 2005 London bombings led attacks on Nato convoys". The Telegraph. 22 January 2009.
  101. ^ "University of Nottingham confers honorary degrees". The Week.
  102. ^ "Lee Rigby killer sues prison service over lost teeth". The Week.
  103. ^ Hirst, Andy; Rinne, Sinni (2017). "RESEARCH REPORT: Pilot evaluation of Kumon Y'all befriending project" (PDF). Equality and Human Rights Commission.
  104. ^ "Muslim hardship under spotlight". BBC News. 14 May 2006. Retrieved 17 June 2010.
  105. ^ a b John Carvel (12 October 2004). "Census shows Muslims' plight". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 17 June 2010.
  106. ^ "London's Mecca rich: the rise of the Muslim multi-millionaires splashing their cash". Retrieved 7 May 2020.
  107. ^ "Ten Wealthiest Muslims In The UK". Islamic Times. Archived from the original on October 6, 2011. Retrieved February 27, 2011.
  108. ^ a b "Christian and atheist children least likely to go to university". Telegraph. 14 May 2006. Retrieved 22 Jul 2011.
  109. ^ "8 Muslim schools in top 50 exam league in England". Retrieved 7 May 2020.
  110. ^ Muslims threatened after bombings BBC News 12 July 2005
  111. ^ Vikram Dood (13 July 2005). "Islamophobia blamed for attack". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2010-04-04.
  112. ^ Muslim graves damaged in cemetery BBC News, 2 November 2006
  113. ^ "Muslim teenager stabbed during attack on UK mosque". Arabic News. 3 October 2006. Archived from the original on 2011-11-07. Retrieved 2010-04-04.
  114. ^ Vikram Dood (28 January 2010). "Media and politicians 'fuel rise in hate crimes against Muslims'". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2010-04-04.
  115. ^ Jonathan Githens-Mazer & Robert Lambert (28 January 2010). "Muslims in the UK: beyond the hype". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2010-04-04.
  116. ^ Dr. Jonathan Githens-Mazer & Dr. Robert Lambert. "Islamophobia and Anti-Muslim Hate Crime: a London Case Study" (PDF). University of Exeter. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-28. Retrieved 2010-04-08.
  117. ^ Richardson, John E. (2004). (Mis)representing Islam: the racism and rhetoric of British broadsheet newspapers. John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 90-272-2699-7.
  118. ^ Vikram Dood (21 October 2006). "White pupils less tolerant, survey shows". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2010-04-04.
  119. ^ "Muslim students 'more tolerant'". BBC News. 11 October 2006. Retrieved 2010-04-05.
  120. ^ Ian Dunt (7 May 2009). "Muslims more patriotic than Brits". Politics. Archived from the original on 2009-12-07. Retrieved 2010-04-05.
  121. ^ "Poll: European Muslims more patriotic than average populace". Haaretz. Deutsche Presse-Agentur. 7 May 2009. Archived from the original on 2016-05-29. Retrieved 2010-04-05.
  122. ^ Nick Allen (24 February 2009). "79 per cent of Muslims say Christianity should have strong role in Britain". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 24 December 2010. Retrieved 2010-04-05.
  123. ^ "Britain divided by Islam, survey finds". The Daily Telegraph. London. 11 January 2010. Archived from the original on 14 January 2010. Retrieved 2010-04-04.
  124. ^ "Login". Archived from the original on May 10, 2011.
  125. ^ "11.2007 Evening Standard - Is Islam good for London" (PDF).

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Islam in England.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islam_in_England&oldid=1261537450#Terrorism"