Sierra Popoluca
| Sierra Popoluca | |
|---|---|
| Soteapanec | |
| Nuntajɨyi | |
| Native to | Mexico |
| Region | Veracruz |
Native speakers | 36,000 (2020 census)[1] |
Mixe–Zoquean
| |
| Official status | |
| Regulated by | INALI |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | poi |
| Glottolog | high1276 |
| ELP | Sierra Popoluca |
| Linguasphere | 69-HAB-aa |
Sierra Popoluca, also known as Soteapanec, Soteapan Zoque, or Highland Popoluca, is a developing Mixe-Zoquean language of the Zoquean branch.[2] It has 35,050 speakers (INALI, 2009)[3] who live in the southern part of Veracruz, Mexico. Sierra Popoluca has two sister languages, Texistepec and Ayapanec, both of which are severely endangered.[4]
The word popoluca means "gibberish” in Nahuatl, and the name Sierra Popoluca comes from the language being labelled as such at the time of conquest. To avoid the derogatory connotations of popoluca, some researchers have adopted the name Soteapanec for the language instead (named after the largest municipality it is spoken in). However, modern speakers do not seem to be concerned with the history of the word and simply see it as the name of their language.[5] Natively, speakers refer to the language as Nuntajɨyi, which means "true word," and themselves as Nundajɨypappɨc.[citation needed]
Distribution
[edit]Sierra Popoluca is spoken in the following municipalities:[6]
Other communities where it is spoken include Catemaco, Piedra Labrada, and Santa Rosa Cintepec. Nahuatl and Spanish are also spoken in nearby areas, and have influenced Sierra Popoluca through language contact.[7]
Writing system
[edit]Two Sierra Popoluca spellings have been developed, one by the SIL international and another by the Academia Veracruzana de las Lenguas Indígenas.
| a | b | ch | d | dy | e | g | i | ɨ | j | k | l | m | n |
| ñ | ng | o | p | r | s | t | ts | ty | u | w | x | y | ' |
With the AVELI spelling, the long vowels are represented by doubling the letter, the glottal stop is represented by the apostrophe.[9]
| a | b | c | ch | d | d́ | e | i | ɨ | j | k | l | m | n | ñ |
| ŋ | o | p | q | r | s | t | t́ | ts | u | w | x | y | z |
With the spelling of SIL, long vowels are represented with a macron below the letter and the glottal stop is indicated with the acute accent on the vowel which precedes it, except when it is between two vowels or at the end of word.[11]
Phonology
[edit]Vowels
[edit]Sierra Popoluca has twelve vowel phonemes: six distinct short vowels (front vowels /i/ and /ɛ/, central vowels /ɘ/ and /a/, and back vowels /u/ and /ɔ/) with a corresponding long vowel for each.[12]
| Front | Central-Back | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| High | i iː | u uː | |
| High-mid | ɘ ɘː | ||
| Mid | ɛ ɛː | ɔ ɔː | |
| Low | a aː |
Consonants
[edit]Sierra Popoluca's consonant inventory consists of thirteen consonants.[12]
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ | ||
| Plosive | p | t | k | ʔ | |
| Affricate | ts | ||||
| Fricative | s | h | |||
| Approximant | w | j | |||
| Unspecified segment | H |
Some words in Sierra Popoluca contain "an unspecified underlying segment, identified as the segment /H/.[13] Depending on the environment it appears in, /H/ can alternate in three different ways, as described by the rules below:[13]
| (1) | H | →ː | / | V__C |
| (2) | H | →ːh | / | V__# |
| (3) | H | →Ø | / | V__wɘm |
In addition to its main consonant inventory, Sierra Popoluca also has a restricted phoneme inventory consisting of eleven consonants. These consonants are considered "restricted" because the only words they appear in are either ideophones, Spanish borrowings, or stylistic alterations.[12]
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Alveo-palatal | Palatal | Velar | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stop | b | d | tʲ, dʲ | g | |
| Affricate | tʃ | ||||
| Fricative | ʃ | ||||
| Nasal | ɲ | ||||
| Liquid | l | ||||
| Flap | ɾ | ||||
| Trill | r |
Syllable structure
[edit]Sierra Popoluca's syllabic template is (C)CV(ː)(ʔ)(C)(C). Words containing examples of each syllable structure are given in the table below:[14]
| Structure | Word | Translation |
|---|---|---|
| CV | [ku.'tʲuːm] | 'alone' |
| CVː | ['kɘː.piʰ] | 'firewood' |
| CVC | ['pakʰ] | 'bone' |
| CVːC | ['huːtʲʰ] | 'where' |
| CVʔC | ['kaʔn.puˀ] | 'egg' |
| CVʔCC | [ʔa.'sɔʔps.paˀ] | 'it tires me' |
| CCVC | ['traj.tʲiˀ] | 'kid, adolescent male' |
| CCVCC | ['kruʔj.tʲiˀ] | 'quail' |
Sierra Popoluca has phonotactic restrictions on both onset and coda clusters. For onsets, only the clusters /tr/, /kr/, and /kw/ are allowed. For codas, all two consonant clusters must begin with one of /p, k, ʔ/, and three consonant clusters are restricted to only /ʔps/ and /ʔks/.[15]
Stress
[edit]There are three degrees of stress in Sierra Popoluca: primary stress (which may fall on the penultimate or ultimate syllable), secondary stress (which is assigned to the leftmost syllable that is not a clitic), and tertiary stress (which falls on the heaviest syllable preceding primary stress). Words containing examples of each stress paradigm are given in the table below:[16]
| Paradigm | Word | Translation |
|---|---|---|
| Primary | nümnéʔ | 'He had said.' |
| Secondary | nǜmneʔyájpa | 'They have said.' |
| Tertiary | nǜmmàʔyyajtáabam | 'They are told.' |
Morphology
[edit]Sierra Popoluca is an agglutinating, polysynthetic language whose morpheme inventory is primarily inflectional and consists of roughly an equal number of clitics and suffixes, with no prefixes. The morphological processes reduplication and compounding are also observed in Sierra Popoluca.[17]
Sierra Popoluca has three major word classes: nouns, verbs, and adjectives.[17]
Suffixes
[edit]Sierra Popoluca has 28 suffixes, all of which can be categorized as either derivational, inflectional, or valency adjusting. Nouns only take derivational suffixes whereas verbs take suffixes from all three categories.[18] Examples of each suffix type are given in the table below:
| Suffix | Type | Function | Word | Gloss | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| -i | Derivational | Nominalizer | wiʔk-i | eat-NOM | 'food'[19] |
| -ü | Inflectional | Imperative | koony-ü | sit-IMP | 'sit' (command)[20] |
| -ʔüʔy | Derivational | Provisory | jawanh-ʔüʔy | fever-PROV | 'have a fever'[21] |
| -ʔiny | Inflectional | Optative | matonh-ʔiny | listen-OPT | 'should listen'[20] |
| -taH | Valency adjusting | Passive | suy-taH | lasso-PASS | 'be lassoed'[22] |
Proclitics
[edit]There are 17 proclitics in Sierra Popoluca. Out of these, ten are used for person marking, three are used for valency adjusting, two are derivational, and the final two have other, unique functions. Verbs in Sierra Popoluca can take all proclitic types while nouns can take all but valency adjusting proclitics.[23] Examples of various proclitics are given in the table below:
| Proclitic | Type | Function | Word | Gloss | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ʔan+ | Person marking | 1st person possessive,
exclusive |
ʔan+ʔakʔanh | 1POSS:EXCL+griddle | 'my griddle'[24] |
| ʔiga+ | Other | Complementizer | ʔiga+Ø+teeny-W | COMP+3ABS+stand-CMP | 'that [he] was standing up'[25] |
| tan+ | Person marking | 1st person ergative,
inclusive |
tan+juy | 1ERG:INCL+buy | 'we buy'[26] |
| ʔak+ | Valency adjusting | Causative | ʔak+kuʔt | CAUS+eat | 'feed'[27] |
| ʔagi+ | Other | Intensifier | ʔagi+wej | INTENS+cry | 'cry a lot'[28] |
Enclitics
[edit]Sierra Popoluca has nine enclitics, six of which are adverbial, two of which are inflectional, and one of which is a relativizer. Nouns can take all three types of enclitic whereas verbs can only take adverbial enclitics. Examples of each enclitic type are given in the table below:[29]
| Enclitic | Type | Function | Word | Gloss | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| +yaj | Inflectional | 3rd/nonhuman plural | tzaʔ+yaj | rock+NHPL | 'rocks' |
| +tyi | Adverbial | "just" | yüʔüm+tyi | here+just | 'just over here' |
| +tam | Inflectional | 1st/2nd human plural | yoomo+tam | woman+HPL | 'women' |
| +püʔk | Relativizer | Relativizer | tum puktuuku yagatz+püʔk | one cloth large+REL | 'a cloth that's large' |
| +nam | Adverbial | "still" | tzüüxi+nam | small+still | 'still small' |
Reduplication
[edit]Reduplication of the root (full reduplication) is observed with both nouns and verbs in Sierra Popoluca, and can be inflectional or derivational.[30] Though generally used to convey intensity or frequency, reduplication can also express "a sense of wandering around repeating an action"[30] when paired with the ambulative suffix -ʔoʔy.[31] Various examples of reduplication are given in the table below:
| Function | Word | Gloss | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Derivational | looko~looko | sound~REDUP | 'shout'[31] |
| Frequency, intensity | ʔaʔm~ʔaʔm | look~REDUP | 'watch'[32] |
| Ambulative | monh~monh-ʔoʔy | sleep~REDUP-AMBUL | 'sleep from place to place'[32] |
| Frequency, intensity | was~was | bite~REDUP | 'bite repeatedly'[33] |
| Intensity | ʔuk~ʔuk | drink~REDUP | 'drink all'[33] |
Compounding
[edit]Compounding is observed in all word classes in Sierra Popoluca and is highly productive.[34] Various examples of compound words are given in the table below:
| Structure | Word | Gloss | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| N=N | mok=yooya | corn=pig | 'peccary'[34] |
| N=V | pooy=ʔix | moon=see | 'menstruate'[35] |
| N=N | tzuj-i=nüʔ | spit-NOM=water | 'saliva'[34] |
| ADJ=N | müj=pak | big=bone | 'waist'[36] |
| N=V | manük=wat | child=make | 'impregnate'[35] |
Syntax
[edit]Sierra Popoluca is an ergative-absolutive, head-marking language. At minimum, the basic clause can consist of just a predicate, as shown below:[37]
ʔa+seet-pa
1ABS:EXCL+return-INC
'I return.'
At maximum, it can include an inflected complex predicate and up to three modified arguments:[37]
ʔan+jaatunh
1POSS:EXCL+father
ʔi+maʔy=chiʔ-W
3ERG+sell=give-COMPL
tunh.gak
one.another
püüxiny
man
jeʔm
that
ʔan+yooya
1POSS:EXCL+pig
'My father sold another man my pig.'
Basic word order
[edit]Word order in Sierra Popoluca is pragmatically determined for the most part. In transitive sentences, all six possible word orders are attested, as shown below:[38]
VSO
ʔokmü
after
ʔi+ma?y-W
3ERG+sell-COMPL
ʔan+tüüwü
1POSS:EXCL+brother
jeʔm
that
potro
colt
'Afterward, my brother sold the mare.'
VOS
ʔi+ʔix-W
3ERG+see-COMPL
kaʔnpu
egg
jeʔm
that
choomo
grandmother
nüʔ-küʔ.mü
water-at/during
'The old woman saw the egg in the water.'
SVO
jeʔm
that
yoomo
woman
ʔagi+ʔi+ʔaʔm-W
INT+3ERG+look-COMPL
jeʔm
that
tzuʔukiny
worm
'The woman looked intensely at the worm.'
SOV
jay=tzüüx+tyam+yaj
boy=child+HPL+NHPL
woonyi+tyam
girls+HPL
ʔi+mük.ʔüʔy.ʔaʔy-yaj-pa
3ERG+lie.ANTIP.BEN-3PL-INC
'The boys cheat the girls.'
OVS
yüʔp
this
many=mok
young=corn
ʔi+na+miny-W+ʔam
3ERG+ASS+come-COMPL+IAM
ʔin+müʔüt
2ERG+son.in.law
'Your son in law brought this corn.'
OSV
mich
2PRO
ʔin+choomo
2POSS+grandmother
dya
NEG
jeʔm+püʔk
that+REL
mi+toy-taʔm-pa
2ABS+love-1:2PL-INC
'Your grandmother doesn't love you.'
In intransitive sentences, both possible word orders are attested:[39]
SV
jeʔm
the
toro
bull
tzaʔ-küʔüm
stone-at/during
Ø+nuʔk-pa
3ABS+arrive-INC
'The bull arrives at the rock.'
VS
Ø+nuʔk-W+ʔam
3ABS+arrive-COMPL-IAM
jeʔm
that
yoomo
woman
'The woman arrives.'
However, not all word orders are used with equal frequency; an analysis of over 4,000 clauses from various texts found the following distribution of word orders in transitive and intransitive sentences:[40]
Distribution of Word Orders by Transitivity
| Order | Frequency |
|---|---|
| SVO | 72.37% |
| VSO | 5.26% |
| VOS | 7.89% |
| OVS | 6.58% |
| OSV | 2.63% |
| SOV | 5.26% |
| Order | Frequency |
|---|---|
| SV | 34.86% |
| VS | 65.14% |
Relative word order
[edit]In terms of relative word order, Sierra Popoluca exhibits some structural features common to VO (verb initial) languages and some common to OV (verb final) languages. A few examples of these structures are given below:[41]
- Possessor precedes possessum (common to OV languages)
diablo
devil
ʔi+jos
3POSS+hole
‘devil's hole (hell)’
- Auxiliary verb precedes main verb (common to VO languages)
püüxiny
man
moj-W
begin-COMPL
Ø+wej-i
3ABS+cry-DEP
‘The man began to cry.’
- Complementizer precedes complement clause (common to VO languages)
ʔi+ʔix-W+tyi+ʔam
3ERG+see-COMPL+just+IAM
ʔiga+ʔüch
COMP+1PRO
dya
NEG
ʔan+joʔy-kaʔ-W
1ERG:EXCL+be.angry-INSTR-COMPL
‘He saw that I wasn't angry.’
Order of nominal modifiers
[edit]Nouns in Sierra Popoluca can be modified by determiners, adjectives, quantifiers, possessors, and relative clauses.[42] Whether a modifier precedes or follows the noun it is modifying depends on the modifier, as illustrated below:
- Demonstratives precede the nouns they modify[43]
ʔoy-taʔm-W
go.and.return-1:2PL-COMPL
yüʔp
this
kootzük
hill
‘We went to these hills.’
- Adjectives precede the nouns they modify[44]
ʔi+na+miny-wü
3ERG+ASS+come-COMPL
puro
pure
muja
wet
kuy
tree
‘He brought pure wet wood.’
- Relative clauses may either precede or follow the nouns they modify[45]
jeʔm
that
ʔi+na+ʔity-yaj-W
3ERG+ASS+be-3PL-COMPL
Ø+müjtam+püʔk
3ABS+big+REL
tük
house
‘They have houses that are big.’
süʔüp
now
na+miny-ü
ASS+come-IMP
tuum
one
puktuuku
cloth
Ø+yagatz+püʔk
3ABS+long+REL
‘Now, bring a cloth that's long.’
Recordings
[edit]- Sierra Popoluca Collection of Lynda Boudreault from the Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America. Contains 148 archival files, including audio recordings and transcripts from a wide range of genres.
Further reading
[edit]- Elson, Ben (1947). "The Homshuk: A Sierra Popoluca Text". Tlalocan: A Journal of Source Materials on the Native Cultures of Mexico. II (3): 193–214.
- Elson, Ben (January 1947). "Sierra Popoluca Syllable Structure". International Journal of American Linguistics. 13 (2). University of Chicago Press: 13–17. doi:10.1086/463925. JSTOR 1263365. S2CID 144386792.
- Kaufman, Terrence (2016a). "Soteapan Gulf Sokean Ethnobotanical Terminology" (PDF). Project for the Documentation of the Languages of Mesoamerica.
- Kaufman, Terrence (2016b). "Soteapan Gulf Sokean Ethnozoological Terminology" (PDF). Project for the Documentation of the Languages of Mesoamerica.
- OLAC resources in and about the Highland Popoluca language
References
[edit]- ^ Lenguas indígenas y hablantes de 3 años y más, 2020 INEGI. Censo de Población y Vivienda 2020.
- ^ "Popoluca, Highland". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2019-04-19.
- ^ INALI (2009). Catálogo de las Lenguas Indígenas Nacionales: Variantes Lingüísticas de México con sus autodenominaciones y referencias geoestadísticas. México.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, p. 7.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, p. 4.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, p. 3.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, pp. 6–8.
- ^ Gutiérrez Morales 2015, p. 19.
- ^ Gutiérrez Morales 2015, p. 20.
- ^ Elson & Gutiérrez G. 1999, p. ix.
- ^ Lind & Lind 2009, p. iv.
- ^ a b c Boudreault 2018, pp. 20–21.
- ^ a b Boudreault 2018, p. 41.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, pp. 49–50.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, pp. 51–53.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, p. 59.
- ^ a b Boudreault 2018, p. 81.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, p. 84.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, p. 133.
- ^ a b Boudreault 2018, p. 346.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, p. 143.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, p. 359.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, pp. 90–93.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, p. 114.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, p. 599.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, p. 119.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, p. 393.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, p. 94.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, pp. 94–99.
- ^ a b Boudreault 2018, pp. 414–415.
- ^ a b Boudreault 2018, p. 256.
- ^ a b Boudreault 2018, p. 335.
- ^ a b Boudreault 2018, p. 521.
- ^ a b c Boudreault 2018, p. 140.
- ^ a b Boudreault 2018, p. 487.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, p. 167.
- ^ a b Boudreault 2018, p. 433.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, pp. 434–435.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, p. 440.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, pp. 438–440.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, pp. 435–436.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, p. 147.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, pp. 151–153.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, pp. 168–169.
- ^ Boudreault 2018, pp. 184–186.
Sources
[edit]- Boudreault, Lynda (2018). A Grammar of Sierra Popoluca. Mouton Grammar Library. Vol. 73. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter GmbH. ISBN 978-3-11-041167-6. OCLC 996939789.
