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Hispanic America

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(Redirected from Hispanoamerica)
Not to be confused with Spanish (disambiguation), Spanish America, Ibero-America, Spanish North America, Spanish American, Hispanic, Hispanic American, or Hispanic and Latino American.
Map of countries that make up Hispanic America

The region known as Hispanic America (Spanish: Hispanoamérica or América Hispana) and historically as Spanish America (Spanish: América Española) or Castilian America (Spanish: América Castellana) is all the Spanish-speaking countries of the American continent.[1][2] In all of these countries, Spanish is the main language - sometimes sharing official status with one or more indigenous languages (such as Guaraní, Quechua, Aymara, or Mayan) or English (in Puerto Rico),[3] and Latin Catholicism is the predominant religion.[4]

Hispanic America is sometimes grouped together with Brazil under the term "Ibero-America", meaning those countries in the Americas with cultural roots in the Iberian Peninsula.[a] Hispanic America also contrasts with Latin America, which includes not only Hispanic America, but also Brazil (the former Portuguese America) and the former French colonies in the Western Hemisphere (areas that are now in either the United States or Canada are usually excluded).[5]

Image of Christopher Columbus' arrival to the Caribbean Islands.
This image shows a 'Casta' child as she is a mixture of a European man and an African woman.

History

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The Spanish conquest of the Americas began in 1492, up until 1531, during the reign of catholic crown king Hernando V and queen Isabella. Cristopher Columbus discovered the Caribbean islands in one of his expeditions with the Spanish crew looking for Asia. Once established in the "New World" the desire of the Spaniards to acquire wealth quickly developed into conquest, the idea of goods and wealth drew more Spaniards' attention to the new land. Conquerors like Hernan Cortes motivated Spanish to conquer lands and establish their living in this 'New World' and ultimately was part of a larger historical process of world discovery, through which various European powers colonised a considerable amount of territory and peoples in the Americas, Asia, and Africa between the 15th and 20th centuries. Hispanic America became the main part of the vast Spanish Empire. Napoleon's intervention in Spain in 1808 and the consequent chaos initiated the dismemberment of the Spanish Empire, as the Hispanic American territories began their struggle for emancipation. By 1830, the only remaining Spanish American territories were the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico, until the 1898 Spanish–American War.[6]

Impact

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In general, Spanish colonies allowed mostly flexibility as long as people followed specific obligations and respected hierarchies and within these limits, Americans were able to negotiate certain aspects of their living. In the early 1540s, once most of the territories were conquered, a lot of Spanish established themselves there for a living, and they also brought with them many African slaves and even free Africans to build on the economy of the 'New World'. They created two separate Republics; 'Republica de Españoles' and 'Republica de Indios'.[7] One was composed by the Spanish and their African slaves and the other one by Hispanic Americans.

There are theories that there were various Republics, others say there were none, however, these two existed and inside the Republica de Indios there were lots of villages that created their own too.[7] Both 'Republica de Indios' and 'Republica de Españoles' lived apart from each other but did not have problems between them, it was just a way to separate hierarchies due to race and ethnicity. Spaniards created this separation as a similar government behaviour as the one back in their country, where only the top of the hierarchy didn't work or pay. In this case, the 'Republica de Españoles' was the top of the hierarchy and most took advantage of it to gain wealth without working just because of their ethnicity. Later on, in the later 1550s the Spaniards would send some churchmen and officials to incorporate into the 'Republica de Indios' so that Christianity remained regardless of the ethnicity.

This idea of the two republics isolated the Hispanic people due to their race. It gave Spanish people wealth and power only because of their ethnicity, generating a social hierarchy that left Hispanic Americans in the lowest position at the level of the African slaves Spanish brought with them through the Atlantic slave trade, and them in the highest position. Spanish were always considered at the top of the hierarchy and both Africans and Americans at the bottom. However, sexual relations between these groups developed into mixed raced populations called 'Castas'. This partially threatened the hierarchy but Spanish maintained themselves at the top and maintained Hispanic Americans and Africans at the bottom but allowed Castas to position themselves somewhere in the middle. However people were often judged and categorised by their level of Spanish, their clothing and their diet as well as their relationship circles. This system entrenched racial inequalities that persisted long after the colonial period.

The independence of Hispanic American countries consisted mainly between 1808 and 1826, and was a fruit of the national people fighting for their territory as they were tired of Spanish taking advantage of their power and the huge inequality there was between the Republicas. The wars for territories consisted of many battles that were generally violent but ended up being effective for the Indigenous to gain their freedom and their lands back. However, it took long for some of the countries to re-establish economic stability in their territories since most of the wealth had been acquired by the Spanish and was no longer there.

The Battle of San Antonio, for the independence of Uruguay.

Demographics

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Countries

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Country Population[8] Area (km2) GDP (nominal [USD, billions])[9] GDP (nominal) per capita GDP (PPP) GDP (PPP) per capita
Argentina Argentina 46,376,763 2,780,400 604.15 12,812.56 12,45.01 26,390.44
Bolivia Bolivia 11,673,029 1,098,581 46.71 3,857.15 125.06 10,340.32
Chile Chile 19,116,209 756,950 344.94 17,253.13 517.53 29,928.25
Colombia Colombia 52,882,884 1,141,748 386.61 7,352.67 1042.26 19,770.18
Costa Rica Costa Rica 5,094,114 51,000 85.18 16,213.84 141.09 26,866.67
Cuba Cuba 11,326,616 110,861 147.79[10] 13,270.00 254.80 22,300.00
Dominican Republic Dominican Republic 11,847,904 48,730 128.92 11,825.35 294.96 27,230.14
Ecuador Ecuador 17,643,060 256,370 122.59 6,630.18 268.19 14,485.60
El Salvador El Salvador 6,486,201 21,040 35.28 5,550.27 75.95 11,700.78
Guatemala Guatemala 16,858,333 108,890 112.40 5,739.46 214.57 10,948.04
Honduras Honduras 9,904,608 112,492 34.16 3,285.97 75.65 7,198.47
Mexico Mexico 128,932,753 1,972,550 2,017.48 15,246.01 3,413.80 25,966.32
Nicaragua Nicaragua 6,624,554 129,494 17.28 2,599.90 51.96 7,648.20
Panama Panama 4,314,768 75,571 82.38 18,489.51 190.81 42,788.36
Paraguay Paraguay 7,132,530 406,752 45.84 7,345.63 124.93 20,054.20
Peru Peru 32,971,846 1,285,220 282.92 8,288.27 566.26 16,684.88
Puerto Rico Puerto Rico[sn 1] 3,075,871 9,100 117.68 37,232.71 132.27 41,942.78
Uruguay Uruguay 3,473,727 176,215 82.46 23,053.11 108.17 30,474.28
Venezuela Venezuela 28,435,943 916,445 92.53 3,541.70 212.74 7,978.27
United States United States[sn 2] 65,329,087 9,833,517 23,322.00 70,458.77 25,462.70 76,986.12
Total 759,292,527 21,291,930 28,072.70 81,557.58 34,162.71 438,313.35
  1. ^ Puerto Rico is a territory of the United States United States.
  2. ^ Total population: 331,002,651

Largest cities

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City Country Population Metro
Mexico City  Mexico 9,209,944 21,804,515
Buenos Aires  Argentina 3,054,300 12,806,866
Bogotá  Colombia 7,963,734 12,545,272
Lima  Peru 8,894,000 9,569,468
Santiago  Chile 5,428,590 7,112,000
Guadalajara  Mexico 1,385,621 5,286,642
Caracas  Venezuela 3,273,863 5,239,364
Guatemala City  Guatemala 2,149,188 4,500,000
Monterrey  Mexico 1,133,814 4,106,054
Medellín  Colombia 2,636,101 3,731,447
Quito  Ecuador 2,011,388 3,156,182
Guayaquil  Ecuador 2,698,077 3,113,725
Havana  Cuba 2,350,000 3,073,000
Maracaibo  Venezuela 2,201,727 2,928,043
Santo Domingo  Dominican Republic 965,040[11] 2,908,607[12]
Puebla  Mexico 1,399,519 2,728,790
Asunción  Paraguay 525,294 2,698,401
Cali  Colombia 2,068,386 2,530,796
San Juan  Puerto Rico[sn 1] 434,374 2,509,007
San Salvador  El Salvador 540,090 2,223,092
San José  Costa Rica 1,543,000 2,158,898
Toluca  Mexico 820,000 1,936,422
Montevideo  Uruguay 1,325,968 1,868,335
Managua  Nicaragua 1,380,300 1,825,000
Barranquilla  Colombia 1,148,506 1,798,143
Santa Cruz  Bolivia 1,594,926 1,774,998
Valencia  Venezuela 894,204 1,770,000
Tijuana  Mexico 1,286,157 1,751,302
Tegucigalpa  Honduras 1,230,000 1,600,000
La Paz  Bolivia 872,480 1,590,000
Panama City  Panama 990,641 1,500,000
Barquisimeto  Venezuela 1,116,000 1,500,000
León  Mexico 1,278,087 1,488,000
Córdoba  Argentina 1,309,536 1,452,000
Ciudad Juárez  Mexico 1,301,452 1,343,000
San Pedro Sula  Honduras 1,250,000 1,300,000
Maracay  Venezuela 1,007,000 1,300,000
Rosario  Argentina 908,163 1,203,000
Torreón  Mexico 548,723 1,144,000
Bucaramanga  Colombia 516,512 1,055,331
  1. ^ Note: Puerto Rico is a territory of the  United States.

Ethnology

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The population of the Hispanic America is made up of the descendants of three large racial groups and their combinations:

• The Indigenous peoples of the Americas, descendants of Incas, Aztecs, Mayan, Taíno, and others.

• Those of European ancestry, mainly Spanish, and Italian.

• Africans who were brought over to Hispanic America during the Slave Trade.

Unlike in the United States, there were no anti-miscegenation policies in Latin America. Though still a racially stratified society there were no significant barriers to gene flow between the three populations. As a result, admixture profiles are a reflection of the colonial populations of Africans, Europeans and Amerindians. The pattern is also sex biased in that the African and Amerindian maternal lines are found in significantly higher proportions than African or Amerindian Y chromosomal lines. This is an indication that the primary mating pattern was that of European males with Amerindian or African females. According to the study, half the White populations of the Latin American countries studied have some degree of either Native American or African admixture (MtDNA or Y chromosome). In countries such as Chile and Colombia almost the entire white population was shown to have some non-European admixture.[13][14][15][16]

Frank Moya Pons, a Dominican historian documented that Spanish colonists intermarried with Taíno women, and, over time, these mestizo descendants intermarried with Africans, creating a tri-racial Creole culture. 1514 census records reveal that 40% of Spanish men in the colony of Santo Domingo had Taíno wives.[17]

The most common combinations are:

• Mestizos, those of mixed ancestry.

Ethnic distribution, in 2005[18] - Population estimates, as of 2020[8]
Country Population[19][20] Mestizos Whites Others
 Argentina 45,376,763 32.0% 63.0% 5.0%
 Bolivia 11,673,029 50.0% 1.0% 49.0%
 Chile 19,116,209 35.0% 60.0% 5.0%
 Colombia 50,882,884 51.0% 33.0% 16.0%
 Costa Rica 5,094,114 45.0% 50.0% 5.0%
 Cuba 11,326,616 33.0% 50.0% 17.0%
 Dominican Republic 10,847,904 65.0% 24.0% 11.0%
 Ecuador 17,643,060 77.0% 8.0% 15.0%
 El Salvador 6,486,201 86.0% 13.0% 1.0%
 Guatemala 16,858,333 60.0% 1.0% 39.0%
 Honduras 9,904,608 90.0% 2.0% 8.0%
 Mexico 128,932,753 51.0% 40.0% 9.0%
 Nicaragua 6,624,554 70.0% 16.0% 14.0%
 Panama 4,314,768 69.0% 17.0% 14.0%
 Paraguay 7,132,530 94.0% 5.0% 1.0%
 Peru 32,971,846 51.0% 3.0% 46.0%
 Uruguay 3,473,727 16.0% 70.0% 14.0%
 Venezuela 28,435,943 53.0% 32.0% 15.0%
Total 420,289,876 50.0% 33.0% 17.0%

Languages

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Quechua, Guarani, Aymara, Nahuatl, Mayan languages, Mapudungun.

Spanish is the official language in most Hispanic American countries, and it is spoken by the vast majority of the population. Native American languages are widely spoken in Chile, Peru, Guatemala, Bolivia, Paraguay and Mexico, and, to a lesser degree, in Panama, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela. In some Hispanic American countries, the population of speakers of indigenous languages tends to be very small or even non-existent (e.g. Uruguay). Mexico contains the largest variety of indigenous languages; there, the most spoken native language is Nahuatl.

In Peru, Quechua is an official language, alongside Spanish and any other indigenous language in the areas where they predominate. In Ecuador, while holding no official status, the closely related Quichua is a recognized language of the indigenous people under the country's constitution; however, it is only spoken by a few groups in the country's highlands. In Bolivia, Aymara, Quechua and Guaraní hold official status alongside Spanish. Guaraní, along with Spanish, is an official language of Paraguay, and is spoken by a majority of the population (who are, for the most part, bilingual), and it is co-official with Spanish in the Argentine province of Corrientes. In Nicaragua, Spanish is the official language, but on the country's Caribbean coast English and indigenous languages such as Miskito, Sumo, and Rama also hold official status. Colombia recognizes all indigenous languages spoken within its territory as official, though fewer than 1% of its population are native speakers of these languages. Nahuatl is one of the 62 native languages spoken by indigenous people in Mexico, which are officially recognized by the government as "national languages" along with Spanish.

Other European languages spoken in Hispanic America include: English, by some groups in Puerto Rico and descendants of British settlers in Argentina and Chile; German, in southern Chile and portions of Argentina, Venezuela, and Paraguay; Italian, in Argentina, Venezuela, and Uruguay; Ukrainian, Polish, and Russian in Argentina; and Welsh, in southern Argentina.[21][22][23][24][25][26] Yiddish and Hebrew can be heard around Buenos Aires. Non-European or Asian languages include Japanese in Peru, Bolivia, and Paraguay; Korean in Argentina and Paraguay; Arabic in Argentina, Colombia, Venezuela, and Chile; and Chinese throughout South America.

In several nations, especially in the Caribbean region, creole languages are spoken. Creole languages of mainland Latin America, similarly, are derived from European languages and various African tongues.

The Garifuna language is spoken along the Caribbean coast in Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua and Belize mostly by the Garifuna people a mixed race Zambo people who were the result of mixing between Indigenous Caribbeans and escaped Black slaves. Primarily an Arawakan language, it has influences from Caribbean and European languages.

Culture

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Cuisine

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Hispanic cuisine as the term is applied in the Western Hemisphere, is a misnomer. What is usually considered Hispanic cuisine in the United States is mostly Mexican and Central American cuisine. Mexican cuisine is composed of mainly indigenous—Aztec and Mayan—and Spanish influences.[citation needed]

Mexican cuisine is considered intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO and can be found all over the United States.

In the United States, with its growing Hispanic population, food staples from Mexican cuisine and the cuisine from other Hispanic countries have become widely available. Over the years, the blending of these cuisines has produced unique American forms such as Tex-Mex cuisine. This cuisine, which originated in Texas, is based on maize products, heavily spiced ground beef, cheese and tomato sauces with chilies. This cuisine is widely available not just in the United States but across other countries, where American exports are found. In Florida, Cuban food is widely available. All of these Hispanic foods in the United States have evolved in character as they have been commercially americanized by large restaurant chains and food companies.

The cuisine of Spain has many regional varieties, with Mediterranean flavors based on olive oil, garlic, and tomatoes and due to its long Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines, has been graced with a great variety and availability of seafood. In the inland communities of Spain, there is a long tradition of cured meat of different kinds, in addition to an abundance of dishes such as roasts and stews, based on beef, pork, lamb, and poultry. The European and Arab heritage of Spain is reflected in its food, along with cosmopolitan influences beginning in the many new ingredients brought in from the New World since the 16th century, e.g. tomatoes, potatoes, or chocolate, and the more modern tastes introduced from Europe since the 19th century, especially through French and Italian dishes. It is only in the last ten years [when?] that Hispanic American dishes have been introduced in Spain. In the United States and Canada, the number of Hispanic restaurants has become a growing trend, following the tapas-style restaurants fashion that first appeared in North America in the 1990s.

Cuban, Dominican, and Puerto Rican cuisines, on the other hand, tend to use a lot of pork and can depend heavily on starchy root vegetables, plantain, and rice. The most prominent influences on their Spanish culinary traditions were introduced by African slaves, and to a lesser degree, French influence from Haiti and later Chinese immigrants. The use of spicy chile peppers of varying degrees of strength used as flavour enhancers in Mexican tradition is practically unknown in traditional Spanish–Caribbean dishes. The cuisine of Haiti, a country with a Francophone majority, is very similar to its regional neighbors in terms of influences and ingredients used.

The Argentine diet is heavily influenced by the country's position as one of the world's largest beef and wine producers, and by the impact that European immigration had on its national culture. Grilled meats are a staple of most meals as are pastas, potatoes, rice, paella and a variety of vegetables (Argentina is a huge exporter of agricultural products). Italian influence is also seen in the form of pizza and ice cream, both of which are integral components of national cuisine.

Uruguayan cuisine is similar to that of Argentina, though seafood is much more dominant in this coastal nation. As another one of the world's largest producers, wine is as much a staple drink to Uruguayans as beer is to Germans.

In Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Chile, potato dishes are typical since the potato is originally from this region. Beef and chicken are common sources of meat. In the Highlands is the cuy, a South American name for guinea pig, a common meat. Given the coastal location, both countries have extensive fishing fleets, which provide a wealth of seafood options, including the signature South American dish, ceviche. While potato is an important ingredient in the Highlands, Rice is the main side dish on the coast.

This diversity in staples and cuisine is also evident in the differing regional cuisines within the national borders of the individual countries.

Symbols

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Flag

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Flag of Hispanic Heritage. Motto: Justicia, Paz, Unión y Fraternidad ("Justice, Peace, Union and Fraternity").[27]

While relatively unknown, there is a flag representing the countries of Spanish America, its people, history and shared cultural legacy.

It was created in October 1933 by Ángel Camblor, captain of the Uruguayan army. It was adopted by all the states of Spanish America during the Pan-American Conference of the same year in Montevideo, Uruguay.[27]

The white background stands for peace, while the Inti sun god of Inca mythology symbolizes the light shining on the Americas, and the three crosses represent Christopher Columbus' caravels, the Niña, Pinta, and Santa María, used in his first voyage from Spain to the New World in 1492. The deep lilac color of the crosses evokes the color of the lion on the coat of arms of the medieval Crown of Castile.[28]

Religion

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The Spanish and the Portuguese took the Latin Catholic faith to their colonies in the Americas, Africa, and Asia; Roman Catholicism remains the predominant religion amongst most Hispanic Americans.[29] Membership in Protestant denominations is increasing, particularly in Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico and other countries.[30] In particular, Pentecostalism has experienced massive growth.[31][32] This movement is increasingly attracting Latin America's middle classes.[33] Anglicanism also has a long and growing presence in Latin America.

Countries Population Total Christians % Christian Population Unaffiliated % Unaffiliated Population Other religions % Other religions Population Source
 Argentina 43,830,000 85.4% 37,420,000 12.1% 5,320,000 2.5% 1,090,000 [34]
 Bolivia 11,830,000 94.0% 11,120,000 4.1% 480,000 1.9% 230,000 [34]
 Chile 18,540,000 88.3% 16,380,000 9.7% 1,800,000 2.0% 360,000 [34]
 Colombia 52,160,000 92.3% 48,150,000 6.7% 3,510,000 1.0% 500,000 [34]
 Costa Rica 5,270,000 90.8% 4,780,000 8.0% 420,000 1.2% 70,000 [34]
 Cuba 11,230,000 58.9% 6,610,000 23.2% 2,600,000 17.9% 2,020,000 [34]
 Dominican Republic 11,280,000 88.0% 9,930,000 10.9% 1,230,000 1.1% 120,000 [34]
 Ecuador 16,480,000 94.0% 15,490,000 5.6% 920,000 0.4% 70,000 [34]
 El Salvador 6,670,000 88.0% 5,870,000 11.2% 740,000 0.8% 60,000 [34]
 Guatemala 18,210,000 95.3% 17,360,000 3.9% 720,000 0.8% 130,000 [34]
 Honduras 9,090,000 87.5% 7,950,000 10.5% 950,000 2.0% 190,000 [34]
 Mexico 126,010,000 94.1% 118,570,000 5.7% 7,240,000 0.2% 200,000 [34]
 Nicaragua 6,690,000 85.3% 5,710,000 13.0% 870,000 1.7% 110,000 [34]
 Panama 4,020,000 92.7% 3,720,000 5.0% 200,000 2.3% 100,000 [34]
 Paraguay 7,630,000 96.9% 7,390,000 1.1% 90,000 2.0% 150,000 [34]
 Peru 32,920,000 95.4% 31,420,000 3.1% 1,010,000 1.5% 490,000 [34]
 Puerto Rico[sn 1] 3,790,000 90.5% 3,660,000 7.3% 80,000 2.2% 40,000 [34]
 Uruguay 3,490,000 57.0% 1,990,000 41.5% 1,450,000 1.5% 50,000 [34]
 Venezuela 33,010,000 89.5% 29,540,000 9.7% 3,220,000 0.8% 250,000 [34]
  1. ^ Note: Puerto Rico is a territory of the  United States.

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ The adjective "Ibero-American" usually refers only to countries of the Western Hemisphere, but in the title of the Organization of Ibero-American States it refers to Iberian and (Ibero-)American countries, plus Equatorial Guinea.

References

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  1. ^ All of the following dictionaries only list "Spanish America" as the name for this cultural region. None list "Hispanic America." All list the demonym for the people of the region discussed in this article as the sole definition, or one of the definitions, for "Spanish American". Some list "Hispanic," "Hispanic American" and "Hispano-American" as synonyms for "Spanish American." (All also include as a secondary definition for these last three terms, persons residing in the United States of Hispanic ancestry.) The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (3rd ed.) (1992). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-44895-6. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.) (2003). Springfield: Merriam-Webster. ISBN 0-87779-807-9. The Random House Dictionary of the English Language (2nd ed.) (1987). New York: Random House. ISBN 0-394-50050-4. Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles (2007). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-920687-2. Webster's New Dictionary and Thesaurus (2002). Cleveland: Wiley Publishing. ISBN 978-0-471-79932-0
  2. ^ "Hispanic America" is used in some older works such as Charles Edward Chapman's 1933 Colonial Hispanic America: A History and 1937 Republican Hispanic America: A History (both New York: The Macmillan Co.); or translated titles that faithfully reproduce Hispanoamérica, such as Edmund Stephen Urbanski (1978), Hispanic America and its Civilization: Spanish Americans and Anglo-Americans, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. The Cambridge University Press textbook by two distinguished historians of early Latin America, James Lockhart and Stuart B. Schwartz is entitled, Early Latin America: A History of Colonial Spanish America and Brazil 1983.
  3. ^ "CIA – The World Factbook – Field Listing – Languages". Archived from the original on June 13, 2007. Retrieved 2009-04-11.
  4. ^ "CIA – The World Factbook – Field Listing – Religions". Archived from the original on June 13, 2007. Retrieved 2009-04-11.
  5. ^ "Latin America" The Free Online Dictionary (American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 2000, 4th ed. Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2003.)
  6. ^ Christopher Conway, Nineteenth-Century Spanish America: A Cultural History (Vanderbilt University Press 2015).
  7. ^ a b Masters, Adrian. "Rethinking the Republics of Spaniards and Indians in the Sixteenth-Century Spanish Indies". The Americas. 78 (1): 3–36.
  8. ^ a b "Population, total | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 2017-07-11.
  9. ^ "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". IMF. Retrieved 2021-09-18.
  10. ^ "The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 2017-07-11.
  11. ^ "Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda 2010 :: Welcome". censo2010.one.gob.do.
  12. ^ Expansión Urbana de las ciudades capitales de RD: 1988-2010 (in Spanish). Santo Domingo: Oficina Nacional de Estadística. 1 May 2015. ISBN 978-9945-8984-3-9. Archived from the original on 14 July 2016. Retrieved 25 January 2016.
  13. ^ Martínez Marignac, Verónica L.; Bianchi Néstor O.; Bertoni Bernardo; Parra Esteban J. (2004). "Characterization of Admixture in an Urban Sample from Buenos Aires, Argentina, Using Uniparentally and Biparentally Inherited Genetic Markers". Human Biology. 76 (4): 543–57. doi:10.1353/hub.2004.0058. PMID 15754971. S2CID 13708018.
  14. ^ Gonçalves, V. F.; Prosdocimi F.; Santos L. S.; Ortega J. M.; Pena S. D. J. (9 May 2007). "Sex-biased gene flow in African Americans but not in American Caucasians". Genetics and Molecular Research. 6 (2): 256–61. ISSN 1676-5680. PMID 17573655. Retrieved 13 July 2008.
  15. ^ Alves-Silva, Juliana; da Silva Santos, Magda; Guimarães, Pedro E. M.; Ferreira, Alessandro C. S.; Bandelt, Hans-Jürgen; Pena, Sérgio D. J.; et al. (2000). "The Ancestry of Brazilian mtDNA Lineages". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 67 (2): 444–461. doi:10.1086/303004. PMC 1287189. PMID 10873790.
  16. ^ Salzano, Francisco M.; Cátira Bortolini, Maria (2002). The Evolution and Genetics of Latin American Populations. Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology. Vol. 28. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 512. ISBN 978-0-521-65275-9.
  17. ^ Ferbel, Dr. P. J. "Not Everyone Who Speaks Spanish is from Spain: Taíno Survival in the 21st Century Dominican Republic". Archived 29 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine Kacikie: Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology. . Retrieved 24 September 2009.
  18. ^ Lizcano Fernández, Francisco (May–August 2005). "Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI" (PDF). Convergencia (in Spanish). 38. Mexico: Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Centro de Investigación en Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades: 185–232, table on p. 218. ISSN 1405-1435. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-09-20.
  19. ^ "World Population Prospects 2022". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved July 17, 2022.
  20. ^ "World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100" (XSLX) ("Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)"). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved July 17, 2022.
  21. ^ "Reference for Welsh language in southern Argentina, Welsh immigration to Patagonia". Bbc.co.uk. 2008-07-22. Retrieved 2013-04-23.
  22. ^ "The Welsh Immigration to Argentina". 1stclassargentina.com.
  23. ^ Jeremy Howat. "Reference for Welsh language in southern Argentina, Welsh immigration to Patagonia". Argbrit.org. Retrieved 2013-04-23.
  24. ^ "Reference for Welsh language in southern Argentina, Welsh immigration to Patagonia". Patagonline.com. Retrieved 2013-04-23.
  25. ^ "Reference for Welsh language in southern Argentina, Welsh immigration to Patagonia". Andesceltig.com. 2009-09-29. Archived from the original on 2017-09-17. Retrieved 2013-04-23.
  26. ^ "Reference for Welsh language in southern Argentina, Welsh immigration to Patagonia". Glaniad.com. Archived from the original on 2016-08-08. Retrieved 2013-04-23.
  27. ^ a b Raeside, Rob, ed. (1999-10-11). "Flag of the Race". Flags of the World. Retrieved 2006-12-23.
  28. ^ Image of the standard of the Crown of Castile
  29. ^ "Christians". December 18, 2012.
  30. ^ Wormald, Benjamin (November 13, 2014). "Religion in Latin America".
  31. ^ Allan., Anderson (2004). An introduction to Pentecostalism : global charismatic Christianity. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521825733. OCLC 53919445.
  32. ^ Pierre., Bastian, Jean (1997). La mutación religiosa de América Latina : para una sociología del cambio social en la modernidad periférica (1st ed.). México: Fondo de Cultura Económica. ISBN 9681650212. OCLC 38448929.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  33. ^ Koehrsen, Jens (2017-09-01). "When Sects Become Middle Class: Impression Management among Middle-Class Pentecostals in Argentina". Sociology of Religion. 78 (3): 318–339. doi:10.1093/socrel/srx030. ISSN 1069-4404.
  34. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s "Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050". www.pewforum.org. 2 April 2015. Archived from the original on 2019-12-21. Retrieved 2020-10-18.


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