Jump to content

Free-ranging dog

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Free ranging dog)
"Stray dog" redirects here. For other uses, see Stray dog (disambiguation).
An Indian street dog
Two urban free-ranging dogs outside Moscow, Russia

A free-ranging dog is a dog that is not confined to a yard or house.[1][2] Free-ranging dogs include street dogs, village dogs, stray dogs, feral dogs, etc., and may be owned or unowned. The global dog population is estimated to be 900 million,[3][4] of which around 20% are regarded as owned pets and therefore restrained.[5]

Origin

[edit]

Dogs living with humans is a dynamic relationship, with a large proportion of the dog population losing contact with humans at some stage over time. This loss of contact first occurred after domestication and has reoccurred throughout history.[6]

The global dog population is estimated to be 900 million and rising.[3][4] Although it is said that the "dog is man's best friend"[7] for the 17–24% of dogs that live as pets in the developed countries,[5] in the developing world pet dogs are uncommon but there are many village, community or feral dogs.[8] Most of these dogs live out their lives as scavengers and have never been owned by humans, with one study showing their most common response when approached by strangers is to run away (52%) or respond aggressively (11%).[9] Little is known about these dogs, or the dogs in developed countries that are feral, stray or that are in shelters, as the majority of modern research on dog cognition has focused on pet dogs living in human homes.[10]

Categories of dogs

[edit]

There is confusion with the terms used to categorize dogs. Dogs can be classed by whether they possess an owner or a community of owners, how freely they can move around, and any genetic differences they have from other dog populations due to long-term separation.[6][2]

Owned dogs

[edit]

Owned dogs are "family" dogs. They have an identifiable owner, are commonly socialized, and are not allowed to roam.[6][2] They are restricted to particular outdoor or indoor areas. They have little impact on wildlife unless going with humans into natural areas.[11]

Domestic dogs are all dog breeds (other than dingoes) selectively bred, kept and fed by humans. They can be pets, guard dogs, livestock guardian dogs or working dogs. Domestic dogs may also behave like wild dogs if they are not adequately controlled or are free roaming.[12]

Free-ranging owned dogs

[edit]

A free-ranging dog is a dog that is not confined to a yard or house.[1][2] Free-ranging owned dogs are cared for by one owner or a community of owners, and are able to roam freely.[6][2] This includes "village dogs", which live in rural areas and human habitations. These are not confined. However, they rarely leave the village vicinity. This also includes "rural free-ranging dogs", which also live in rural areas and human habitations. These are owned or are associated with homes, and they are not confined. These include farm and pastoral dogs that range over particular areas.[11]

A dog cared for by the community, in Alameda Central, CDMX.

Free-ranging unowned dogs

[edit]
Two stray dogs from Kozhikode in Indian state of Kerala.
See also: Estray

Free-ranging unowned dogs are stray dogs. They get their food and shelter from human environments, but they have not been socialized and so they avoid humans as much as possible.[6][2] Free-ranging unowned dogs include "street dogs", which live in cities and urban areas. These have no owner but are commensals, subsisting on left over food from human, garbage or other dogs' food as their primary food sources.[11] Free-ranging unowned dogs also include feral dogs.[6]

Feral dogs

[edit]
A feral dog on Navassa Island in the Caribbean.

The term "feral" can be used to describe those animals that have been through the process of domestication but have returned to a wild state. "Domesticated" and "socialized" (tamed) do not mean the same thing, as it is possible for an individual animal of a domesticated species to be feral and not tame, and it is possible for an individual animal of a wild species to be socialized to live with humans.[13]

Feral dogs differ from other dogs because they did not have close human contact early in their lives (socialization).[6] Feral dogs live in a wild state with no food and shelter intentionally provided by humans and show a continuous and strong avoidance of direct human contact. The distinction between feral, stray, and free-ranging dogs is sometimes a matter of degree, and a dog may shift its status throughout its life. In some unlikely but observed cases, a feral dog that was not born wild but lived with a feral group can become rehabilitated to a domestic dog with an owner. A dog can become a stray when it escapes human control, by abandonment or being born to a stray mother. A stray dog can become feral when it is forced out of the human environment or when it is co-opted or socially accepted by a nearby feral group. Feralization occurs by the development of a fear response to humans. Feral dogs are not reproductively self-sustaining, suffer from high rates of juvenile mortality, and depend indirectly on humans for their food, their space, and the supply of co-optable individuals.[14]

"Wild" dogs

[edit]
"Wild dog" redirects here. For other uses, see Wild dog (disambiguation).
The Australian dingo is debated as being a "wild dog".

The existence of "wild dogs" is debated. Some authors propose that this term applies to the Australian dingo and dingo-feral dog hybrids. They believe that these have a history of independence from humans and should no longer be considered as domesticated.[11] Others disagree, and propose that the dingo was once domesticated and is now a feral dog.[15][16]

Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries defines wild dogs as any dogs that are not domesticated, which includes dingoes, feral dogs and hybrids. Yearling wild dogs frequently disperse more than 100 km (62 mi) from the place where they were born.[12]

The first British colonists to arrive in Australia established a settlement at Port Jackson in 1788 and recorded dingoes living there with indigenous Australians.[17] Although the dingo exists in the wild,[18] it associates with humans but has not been selectively bred as have other domesticated animals.[19][18] The dingo's relationship with indigenous Australians can be described as commensalism, in which two organisms live in close association but without depending on each other for survival. They will both hunt and sleep together. The dingo is therefore comfortable enough around humans to associate with them, but is still capable of living independently, much like the domestic cat.[13]: 128–129  Any free-ranging unowned dog can be socialized to become an owned dog, as some dingoes do when they join human families.[6]

Another point of view regards domestication as a process that is difficult to define. It regards dogs as being either socialized and able to exist with humans, or unsocialized. There exist dogs that live with their human families but are unsocialized and will treat strangers aggressively and defensively as might a wild wolf. There also exists a number of cases where wild wolves have approached people in remote places, attempting to get them to play and to form companionship.[13]

Street dog

[edit]
Street dog at a footpath in Pune, India.

Street dogs, known in scientific literature as free-ranging urban dogs,[20][21] are unconfined dogs that live in cities. They live virtually everywhere cities exist and the local human population allows, especially in the developing world. Street dogs may be stray dogs, pets that have strayed from or are abandoned by their owners, or maybe feral animals that have never been owned.[22] Street dogs may be stray purebreds, true mixed-breed dogs, or unbred landraces such as the Indian pariah dog. Street dog overpopulation can cause problems for the societies in which they live, so campaigns to spay and neuter them are sometimes implemented. They tend to differ from rural free-ranging dogs in their skill sets, socialization, and ecological effects.

Problems caused by street dogs

[edit]
Street dogs at a crossing in Bucharest

Bites

[edit]

Street dogs generally avoid conflict with humans to survive.[citation needed] However, dog bites and attacks can occur for various reasons. Dogs might bite because they are scared, startled, feel threatened, or are protecting something valuable like their puppies, food, or toys. Bites can also happen if dogs are unwell due to illness or injury, are playing, or are experiencing hunger, thirst, abuse, or a lack of caretakers. Territorial instincts and predator instincts can also lead to bites. Rabies remains a significant issue in some countries. India, while having a large street dog population, estimated at around 35-40 million, accounts for 36% of the world's rabies deaths.

Quality of life

[edit]

The presence of stray dogs can significantly impact the quality of life for humans in several ways. Barking, howling, and dog fights can disturb people, especially at night. The smell of dog urine, a result of territory marking, can become pungent among un-spayed or neutered dogs, and the presence of feces can lead to sanitation issues and health risks such as toxocariasis. Additionally, the fear of dog bites and attacks can cause anxiety and affect people's mobility and outdoor activities.

Conversely, stray dogs' quality of life is also greatly affected by their interactions with humans. Stray dogs often struggle with food and water scarcity, and they are vulnerable to abuse and neglect. Lack of medical care leads to untreated injuries and diseases. Urban environments can be harsh and stressful, and encounters with humans can result in fear, injuries, and displacement.

Skills and adaptations

[edit]

Dogs are known to be a highly adaptive and intelligent species. To survive in modern cities, street dogs must be able to navigate traffic.

Some of the stray dogs in Bucharest are seen crossing the large streets at pedestrian crosswalks. The dogs have probably noticed that when humans cross streets at such markings, cars tend to stop.[23] The dogs have accustomed themselves to the flow of pedestrian and automobile traffic; they sit patiently with the people at the curb when they are stopped for a red light, and then cross with them as they have noticed how cars stop when a large number of people cross the road like that.[24]

In other countries, street dogs are said to have been observed to use subway and bus services.[25]

Behaviour

[edit]

Wild dogs rest during the day, often not far from water, and their travel routes to and from resting or den sites may be well defined. They are usually timid and do not often stray into urban areas unless they are encouraged. Those with a recent domestic background or regular close contact with people may approach dwellings or people. Wild dogs are attracted to places where they can scavenge food, and deliberately or inadvertently feeding them can make them dependent on humans. Wild dingoes in remote areas live in packs, often of 3–12 animals, with a dominant (alpha) male and female controlling breeding. Packs establish territories which usually do not overlap. Wild dogs, particularly dingoes, visit the edge of their territory regularly. This checking of the boundaries is termed the dog's beat.[26]

Wild dogs are often heard howling during the breeding season which, for pure dingoes, occurs once a year. Hybrid dogs have two oestrus cycles each year, although they may not always successfully raise young in each cycle.[26]

After a nine-week gestation, four to six pups are born in a den that provides protection from the elements and other animals. Dens may be in soft ground under rocks, logs or other debris, or in logs or other hollows. Pups are suckled for 4-6 weeks and weaned at four months. They become independent of their parents when they are 6 weeks to 2 months old, with those becoming independent at the later time having a higher rate of survival. Increased food supplied by people also enables more pups to survive to maturity.[26]

Feeding habits

[edit]

According to Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, wild dogs can be found on grazing land, on the fringes of towns, in rural-residential estates, or in forests and woodlands—anywhere there is food, water and shelter. They will eat whatever is easiest to obtain when they are hungry, animal or vegetable matter. They will hunt for live prey, or will eat road-killed animals, dead livestock, and scraps from compost heaps or rubbish. They mostly take small prey such as rabbits, possums, rats, wallabies and bandicoots. When hunting in packs, they will take larger animals such as kangaroos, goats or the young of cattle and horses. Their choice of primary prey species depends on what is abundant and easy to catch. They usually hunt in the early morning and early evening, when they locate individual prey animals by sight, approach them silently, and then pursue them. Wild dogs that depend primarily on rubbish may remain in the immediate vicinity of the source, while those that depend on livestock or wild prey may travel up to 20 km (12 mi). In a Perth study most of the 1400 dogs involved in livestock attacks were friendly and approachable family pets—very few were aggressive to people.[26]

Rabies impact

[edit]

In 2011, a media article on the stray dog population by the US National Animal Interest Alliance said that there are 200 million stray dogs worldwide and that a "rabies epidemic" was causing a global public health issue.[27] In 2013, the World Health Organization reports that dogs are responsible for the vast majority of human rabies deaths, contributing up to 99% of all rabies transmissions to humans. Rabies causes tens of thousands of deaths every year, mainly in Asia and Africa. More than 15 million people receive post-bite rabies vaccines to prevent the disease.[28]

Conservation impact

[edit]

Increasing numbers of free-ranging dogs have become a threat to the snow leopard and young brown bears on the Tibetan Plateau because dog packs chase these animals away from food.[29] Free-ranging dogs are often vectors of zoonotic diseases such as rabies, toxocariasis, heartworm, leptospirosis, Capnocytophaga, bordetellosis, and echinococcosis that can be spread to humans, and can also spread canine distemper, canine adenovirus, parvovirus and parainfluenza, which can infect other dogs and also jump into species such as African wild dogs, wolves, lions and tigers. In addition, they can interbreed with other members of the genus Canis such as the gray wolf, the Ethiopian wolf and the dingo, alongside those outside the genus such as the pampas fox, raising genetic purity concerns.[citation needed]

Free-ranging urban dogs by country

[edit]

South Asia

[edit]

Afghanistan

[edit]

Nowzad is an organisation in Afghanistan that works to rescue stray dogs in that country.[30] A group of stray dogs became famous in Afghanistan after confronting a suicide bomber, preventing fifty American soldiers from being killed.[31] However, one of the surviving dogs, Target, was mistakenly euthanized when she was brought to the United States.[32]

Bhutan

[edit]
A stray dog in Thimphu, Bhutan

In October 2023, Bhutan achieved 100% sterilization of its free-roaming dogs. A nationwide sterilization initiative was carried out under the Nationwide Accelerated Dog Population Management and Rabies Control Program (NADPM&RCP) by the government. The program to manage stray dogs started in 2009 and multiple phases were carried out to achieve 100% sterilization.[33]

Stray dogs are feared in Bhutan when they move around in packs. Dog bites are of concern in almost all cities.[34] In May 2022, six feral stray dogs mauled and killed a seven-year-old girl in Genekha.[35] Stray dogs have also historically poised a problem for tourists in Bhutan, who have complained about the disturbance caused by nightly howls.

An ear notch indicates a dog has been sterilized and vaccinated.[36]

India

[edit]
A Street Dog drinking water in Howrah, India in the Summer

Due to the collapse of vulture populations in India, which formerly consumed large quantities of dead animal carcasses and terminated certain pathogens from the food chain,[37] India's urban street dog populations have exploded and become a health hazard.[38] Mumbai, for example, has over 12 million human residents, over half of whom are slum-dwellers. At least five hundred tons of garbage remain uncollected daily. Therefore, conditions are perfect for supporting a particularly large population of stray dogs.[39]

In 2001, a law was passed in India making the killing of stray dogs illegal. Contrary to misconceptions that this law exacerbated problems, evidence shows that humane methods, such as vaccinating and sterilizing dogs, are more effective in controlling the street dog population and reducing rabies cases.

For instance, World Animal Protection highlighted how Mexico eliminated human rabies through mass dog vaccination. Similarly, initiatives like World Veterinary Service's (WVS) Mission Rabies have successfully vaccinated and sterilized 70% of dogs in Goa, making it the first state in India to become rabies-free. These approaches align with global health recommendations, emphasizing vaccination and sterilization over culling to effectively manage rabies and street dog populations.

Pakistan

[edit]

In Pakistan, several dog breeds exist including the Gaddi Kutta, Indian pariah dog, Bully Kutta, among others.[40] In the city of Lahore, the Public Health Department launched a campaign to kill 5,000 stray dogs.[41] In 2009, 27,576 dogs were killed within the city of Lahore; in 2005, this number was 34,942.[42] In 2012, after 900 dogs were killed in the city of Multan, the Animal Safety Organisation in Pakistan sent a letter to Chief Minister (CM) Shahbaz Sharif recommending that "stray dogs be vaccinated rather than killed."[43]

Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka, there is a No-Kill Policy for street dogs, hence neutering and vaccinating are encouraged. Despite the proposal for an updated Animal Welfare Act, century-old law against animal cruelty still exist, so they are subjected to cruelty in various forms.

Europe

[edit]

Bulgaria

[edit]

There is a number of street dogs in Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria.

Italy

[edit]

Around 80% of abandoned dogs die early due to lack of survival skills.[44]

Romania

[edit]
Feral puppies in Bucharest
See also: Street dogs in Bucharest

In Romania, free-ranging urban dogs (called in Romanian câini maidanezi, literally "wasteland dogs", câini comunitari "community dogs", etc.) have been a huge problem in recent decades, especially in larger cities, with many people being bitten by dogs. The problem originates primarily in the systematization programme that took place in Communist Romania in the 1970s and 1980s under Nicolae Ceaușescu, who enacted a mass programme of demolition and reconstruction of existing villages, towns, and cities, in whole or in part, in order to build standardized blocks of flats (blocuri). The dogs from the yards of the demolished houses were abandoned on the streets, and reproduced, multiplying their numbers throughout the years. Estimations for Bucharest vary widely, but the number of stray dogs has been reduced drastically in 2014,[45] after the death of a 4-year-old child in 2013 who was attacked by a dog. The Bucharest City Hall stated that over 51,200 stray dogs were captured from October 2013 to January 2015, with more than half being euthanized, about 23,000 being adopted, and 2,000 still residing in the municipality's shelters.[46]

Russia

[edit]
Stray dog eating from a garbage can in Moscow
See also: Stray dogs in Moscow

Stray dogs are very common in Russia. They are found both in the countryside and in urban areas. In Russia, street dogs are accepted by the common people and are even fed by the local population, including in the capital city of Moscow.[47] However, capturing of stray dogs by doghunters' vans and being culled has been documented since around 1900. The number of street dogs in Moscow is estimated to be up to 50,000 animals. Their sad lot was dramatized by Anton Chekhov in the famous short story Kashtanka, by Mikhail Bulgakov in the novella Heart of a Dog, and by Gavriil Troyepolsky in the novel White Bim Black Ear. When the number of street dogs massively increased in the 1990s and in the beginning of the new millennium it came to many attacks on human, the dogs were captured and killed. In recent years the attitude and strategy towards street dogs has changed. The dogs are caught, sterilized and it is ensured that the dogs have enough to eat. The dogs keep the city free of food leftovers and rats. Since 2002 in Moscow there exists a monument dedicated to the stray dog called Malchik (Eng: "Little boy"). Stray dogs in Moscow have adapted their behavior to traffic and the life of Moscow. The dogs even ride the metro and understand the rules of traffic lights and are often called Moscow's metro dogs.[48][49][50][51][52]

Serbia

[edit]
Street dog in city of Valjevo, Serbia.

Free-ranging dogs are a serious problem[why?] of the Serbian cities and rural areas.[53] The total number of free-ranging dogs in Serbia is estimated at several tens of thousands,[54] of which the largest groups can be found in Belgrade (more than 17,000), Novi Sad (about 10,000), Niš (between 7,000 and 10,000), Subotica (about 8,000) and Kragujevac (about 5,000).[55]

Turkey

[edit]
Animal parts left on a street in Antalya, Turkiye for street dogs

While many developing countries harbor high numbers of stray dogs as a result of neglect, Turkey’s problem is a little different. In 2004, Turkish government passed a law requiring local officials to rehabilitate rather than annihilate stray dogs. The Animal Protection Law No. 5199 states a no kill, no capture policy, and unlawful euthanization are prosecutable offenses. It requires animals to be sterilized, vaccinated, and taken back to the place where they were found.[56]

You can spot stray dogs everywhere in Turkey, even in a hospital waiting room.

Another reason for the increase in stray dog numbers is that it is easier to adopt a dog in Turkey than in many other nations. Even "dangerous breeds" could be homed before the "dangerous dogs" bill was passed at the beginning of 2022.[57] Still, this means the vetting process for dog ownership is not extensive. There is no real punishment for discarding dogs to streets. Istanbul, the most populous city of the country, is home to one of the highest concentrations of stray animals, with an estimated 400,000 to 600,000 dogs roaming the streets.[58] In total, it is estimated that 3 to 10 millions of stray dogs live in Turkey and expected to rise up to 60 million in 10 years.[59]

North America

[edit]

United States

[edit]

Each year, approximately 2.7 million dogs and cats are euthanized because shelters are too full and there are not enough adoptive homes. In 2016, between 592,255 and 866,366 street dogs were euthanized in the US.[60]

Puerto Rico

[edit]
Stray dog in Mayagüez, Puerto Rico

In Puerto Rico, street dogs (and cats) are known as satos.[61] In the late 1990s it was estimated there were 50,000 street dogs in the U.S. territory.[62] By 2018 there were around 300,000 stray dogs in Puerto Rico.[63] Programs to address the problem have been launched by the Humane Society of Puerto Rico and others. In 2018, a non-profit organization called Sato Project launched its first "spayathon", a large-scale project to spay and neuter satos of Puerto Rico. Other initiatives include having mainland U.S. residents adopt the island dogs.[64]

South-East Asia

[edit]

Philippines

[edit]

Locally known as Askals, street dogs in the Philippines, while sometimes exhibiting mixing with breed dogs from elsewhere, are generally native unbred mongrel dogs.

Thailand

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Street dogs in Thailand.[edit]
A street dog in front of the Shangri-La hotel in Bangkok
Street dogs, commonly soi dogs (in Thai soi means 'side-street', 'lane', or 'alley') in Thailand, are ownerless, free-ranging dogs. These dogs are sometimes rounded up and sold as meat in Vietnam and China.[65] It is estimated that there are about 8.5 million dogs in Thailand, of which about 730,000 are abandoned by their owners.[66] Bangkok alone is estimated to have from 100,000[67] to 300,000 street dogs.[68] Few have been vaccinated against canine diseases.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Slater, Margaret R (2001). "The role of veterinary epidemiology in the study of free-roaming dogs and cats". Preventive Veterinary Medicine. 48 (4): 273–86. doi:10.1016/S0167-5877(00)00201-4. PMID 11259820.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Høgåsen, H.R; Er, C; Di Nardo, A; Dalla Villa, P (2013). "Free-roaming dog populations: A cost-benefit model for different management options, applied to Abruzzo, Italy". Preventive Veterinary Medicine. 112 (3–4): 401–13. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2013.07.010. PMID 23973012.
  3. ^ a b Gompper, Matthew E. (2013). "The dog–human–wildlife interface: assessing the scope of the problem". In Gompper, Matthew E. (ed.). Free-Ranging Dogs and Wildlife Conservation. Oxford University Press. pp. 9–54. ISBN 978-0191810183.
  4. ^ a b Lescureux, Nicolas; Linnell, John D.C. (2014). "Warring brothers: The complex interactions between wolves (Canis lupus) and dogs (Canis familiaris) in a conservation context". Biological Conservation. 171: 232–245. Bibcode:2014BCons.171..232L. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2014.01.032.
  5. ^ a b Lord, Kathryn; Feinstein, Mark; Smith, Bradley; Coppinger, Raymond (2013). "Variation in reproductive traits of members of the genus Canis with special attention to the domestic dog (Canis familiaris)". Behavioural Processes. 92: 131–142. doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2012.10.009. PMID 23124015. S2CID 9748685.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h Miklosi, A. (2015). "Ch.8-Intraspecific social organization in dogs and related forms". Dog Behaviour, Evolution, and Cognition (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 172–173.
  7. ^ Laveaux, C.J. & King of Prussia, F. (1789). The life of Frederick the Second, King of Prussia: To which are added observations, Authentic Documents, and a Variety of Anecdotes. J. Derbett London.
  8. ^ Coppinger, Ray (2001). Dogs: a Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution. New York: Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-85530-1.
  9. ^ Ortolani, A (2009). "Ethiopian village dogs: Behavioural responses to a stranger's approach". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 119 (3–4): 210–218. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2009.03.011.
  10. ^ Udell, M. A. R.; Dorey, N. R.; Wynne, C. D. L. (2010). "What did domestication do to dogs? A new account of dogs' sensitivity to human actions". Biological Reviews. 85 (2): 327–45. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.483.3002. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.2009.00104.x. PMID 19961472. S2CID 11627064.
  11. ^ a b c d Vanak, ABI Tamim; Gompper, Matthew E (2009). "Dogs Canis familiarisas carnivores: Their role and function in intraguild competition". Mammal Review. 39 (4): 265. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2907.2009.00148.x.
  12. ^ a b "Wild dog facts: What is a wild dog" (PDF). Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, State of Queensland. July 2016. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Attribution 3.0 Australia (CC BY 3.0 AU) license.
  13. ^ a b c Pierotti, R.; Fogg, B. (2017). "Ch.9-The process of domestication:Tame versus feral and domestic versus wild". The First Domestication: How Wolves and Humans Coevolved. Yale University Press. pp. 192–193. ISBN 978-0-300-22616-4.
  14. ^ Boitani, L.; Ciucci, P. (1995). "Comparative social ecology of feral dogs and wolves". Ethology Ecology & Evolution. 7 (1): 49–72. Bibcode:1995EtEcE...7...49B. doi:10.1080/08927014.1995.9522969. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-08-13. Retrieved 2018-06-25.
  15. ^ Greig, K; Walter, R; Matisoo-Smith, L (2016). "21–Dogs and People in South East Asia and the Pacific". In Marc Oxenham; Hallie Buckley (eds.). The Routledge Handbook of Bioarchaeology in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands. Routledge, Oxford UK. pp. 471–475. ISBN 9781138778184.
  16. ^ Jackson, Stephen M.; Groves, Colin P.; Fleming, Peter J.S.; Aplin, KEN P.; Eldridge, Mark D.B.; Gonzalez, Antonio; Helgen, Kristofer M. (2017). "The Wayward Dog: Is the Australian native dog or Dingo a distinct species?". Zootaxa. 4317 (2): 201. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4317.2.1. hdl:1885/186590.
  17. ^ Tench, W. (1789). "11" (PDF). A Narrative of the Expedition to Botany Bay. J. Debrett. Note that page numbers are not used in this journal
  18. ^ a b Smith, Bradley, ed. (2015). "Ch.3". The Dingo Debate: Origins, Behaviour and Conservation. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, Australia. pp. 55–80. ISBN 9781486300303.
  19. ^ Jackson, Stephen; Groves, Colin (2015). Taxonomy of Australian Mammals. CSIRO Publishing, Clayton, Victoria, Australia. pp. 287–290. ISBN 9781486300136.
  20. ^ Daniels, T.J. (July 1983). "The social organization of free-rangingurbandogs. I. Non-estrous social behavior". Applied Animal Ethology. 10 (4): 341–363. doi:10.1016/0304-3762(83)90184-0.
  21. ^ Pal, Sunil Kumar (2001). "Population ecology of free-ranging urban dogs in West Bengal, India". Acta Theriologica. 46 (1): 69–78. doi:10.1007/BF03192418. ISSN 0001-7051. S2CID 26159565. A population of urban free-ranging dogsCanis familiaris Linnaeus, 1758 was studied in Katwa, West Bengal, India. The analysis of changes in the density of the dog population over 4 years revealed considerable stability of this population. Mean (±SD)2 seasonal population density was
  22. ^ Miklósi, Adam (4 December 2008). Dog Behaviour, Evolution, and Cognition. Oxford University Press. p. 205. ISBN 9780191580130. Some dogs lead a relatively free life despite being socialized to some extent. These dogs have or can establish a social relationship with human(s) and may be fed and sheltered regularly (stray dogs, village dogs).
  23. ^ "Stray Dogs Offered as Pedestrian Role Models : Discovery News". News.discovery.com. 2013-01-23. Retrieved 2013-11-16.
  24. ^ "Romanian police recruit stray dogs for road safety lessons". The Raw Story. 2013-01-23. Retrieved 2013-11-16.
  25. ^ "Smartest Dogs: Moscow Stray Dogs – English Russia". englishrussia.com. 7 April 2009. Retrieved 15 May 2015.
  26. ^ a b c d "Wild dog facts:Biology, ecology and behaviour" (PDF). Department ofAgriculture and Fisheries, Queensland Government. July 2016. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Attribution 3.0 Australia (CC BY 3.0 AU) license.
  27. ^ "The Global Stray Dog Population Crisis". National Animal Interest Alliance. Retrieved 4 July 2014.
  28. ^ "Rabies - Fact Sheet N°99, Updated 2013". World Health Organization. Retrieved 4 July 2014.
  29. ^ Understanding Dogs to Protect Cats by Luke Dollar, National Geographic 2016
  30. ^ Itasaka, Kiko (5 October 2013). "Afghan shelter reunites dogs and cats of war with soldiers back home". NBC. Retrieved 2 October 2014. "We don't turn any animal in need away," said Hastie, who runs the Nowzad Animal Shelter in Kabul. Nowzad is named after the small town in Helmand where the first dog was adopted in 2007. In six years, Nowzad has taken in thousands of animals of war, many of which were adopted by soldiers serving all over Afghanistan. The charity has organized the transport of over 400 dogs and cats to be reunited with former soldiers in the United States and the United Kingdom.
  31. ^ Lacey, Marc (18 November 2010). "Afghan Hero Dog Is Euthanized by Mistake in U.S." The New York Times. Retrieved 2 October 2014. When a suicide bomber entered an American military barracks in Afghanistan in February, it was not American soldiers but Afghan stray dogs that confronted him. Target and two other dogs snarled, barked, and snapped at the man, who detonated his bomb at the entrance to the facility but did not kill anyone.
  32. ^ Caulfied, Philip (16 November 2010). "Target, 'war hero dog' who saved 50 soldiers in Afghanistan, mistakenly put to death in AZ shelter -". Daily News. Retrieved 3 October 2014. A heroic dog who saved the lives of dozens of soldiers in Afghanistan and melted hearts on "Oprah" was accidentally euthanized at an Arizona animal shelter on Monday. The dog, Target, was a stray in Afghanistan who befriended soldiers and was hailed as a hero after she chased away a suicide bomber who tried to blow up a military base last February. The suicide bomber had sneaked onto the base and was headed toward a barracks that housed nearly 50 soldiers when Target and two other dogs attacked him, Target's owner, Sgt. Terry Young told Arizona's KOLD-TV.
  33. ^ "How Bhutan became the first country in the world to achieve 100% sterilisation of its free-roaming dog population". The Bhutanese. Retrieved 2024-03-02.
  34. ^ Newspaper, Bhutan's Daily. "Chamkhar battles stray dog menace". Kuensel Online. Retrieved 2024-03-02.
  35. ^ Newspaper, Bhutan's Daily. "Feral dogs that killed a girl removed". Kuensel Online. Retrieved 2024-03-02.
  36. ^ Stone, Kristin (2011-11-15). "Street Dogs in Bhutan". Humane Society International. Retrieved 2024-03-02.
  37. ^ Geggel, Laura (November 25, 2014). "How Vultures Can Eat Rotting Flesh Without Getting Sick". livescience.com.
  38. ^ Markandyaa, Anil; Taylor, Tim; Longo, Alberto; Murtyd, M.N.; Murtyd, S. and Dhavalad, K.; 'Counting the cost of vulture decline—An appraisal of the human health and other benefits of vultures in India'; Ecological Economics 67 (2), 15 September 2008, pp 194–204
  39. ^ Harris, Gardiner (6 August 2012). "Where Streets Are Thronged With Strays Baring Fangs". The New York Times. Retrieved 3 October 2014. A 2001 law forbade the killing of dogs, and the stray population has increased so much that officials across the country have expressed alarm.
  40. ^ Pathak, Arun (1995). Handicrafts in the Indus Valley Civilization. Janaki Prakashan. ISBN 978-8185078878.
  41. ^ "City launches drive against stray dogs". The Express Tribune. The New York Times. 4 May 2011. Retrieved 2 October 2014. The city government's Public Health Department has launched a campaign to kill nearly 5,000 dogs in the district. Officials say that the risk to public health from stray dogs increases in the summer.
  42. ^ "City launches drive against stray dogs". The Express Tribune. The New York Times. 4 May 2011. Retrieved 2 October 2014. Last year, 27,576 stray dogs were killed in Lahore. This century, the highest number of dogs killed in one year in Lahore was 34,942 in 2005.
  43. ^ Malik, Sonia (21 November 2012). "850 stray dogs shot dead in a week". The Express Tribune. Retrieved 2 October 2014. Muhammad Usman, president of the Animal Safety Organisation Pakistan, said he had written a letter to CM Shahbaz Sharif recommending that stray dogs be vaccinated rather than killed. He said he had recommended that shelter homes be built for stray animals. Usman said the government had already killed nearly 900 dogs in Multan over the last two weeks. "An injection can kill rabies germs in a dog... after that a dog attack is no longer lethal." he said.
  44. ^ "NASCE MORANDO PER IL SOCIALE". pettrend.it. Retrieved 15 May 2015.
  45. ^ "Bucureștiul a rămas fără maidanezi. ASPA: Mai sunt în jur de 1.500 de câini pe străzi. Am adunat 55.000". adevarul.ro. 18 March 2015. Retrieved 20 January 2019.
  46. ^ Insider, Romania; Media, City Compass (16 January 2015). "What happened to the 51,000 stray dogs captured in Bucharest? – Romania Insider". Retrieved 20 January 2019.
  47. ^ "Hund adoptieren Tierschutz Russland e.V. über Russland". www.hund-adoptieren.de. Retrieved 2020-12-07.
  48. ^ McGrane, Sally (2013-07-08). "Moscow's Metro Dogs". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved 2019-09-16.
  49. ^ "In Moskau leben drei Millionen Hunde". Schwäbisches Tagblatt (in German). Retrieved 2019-09-16.
  50. ^ Boyd, Jacqueline (18 February 2016). "How did Moscow's stray dogs learn to navigate the metro?". The Conversation. Retrieved 2019-09-16.
  51. ^ "Moskaus Straßenhunde fahren Metro". Deutschlandfunk Nova (in German). 26 December 2018. Retrieved 2019-09-16.
  52. ^ "Ein Rudel Straßenhunde springt in die Bahn. Was sie dann tun, ist nicht zu fassen". Tierfreund (in German). Retrieved 2019-09-16.
  53. ^ "Otrovano 5 pasa u Nišu : Hronika : Južne vesti". Juznevesti.com. Retrieved 2013-11-16.
  54. ^ "Napadi pasa lutalica". e-novine.com. 2011-04-30. Retrieved 2012-08-23.
  55. ^ "Các Giống Chó Cảnh". Retrieved 26 February 2013. zoipet.com
  56. ^ "Summary of Turkish Animal Laws & Pending Legislation as of 2021 April | English Content | KÜTÜPHANE | HAYTAP - Hayvan Hakları Federasyonu". Summary of Turkish Animal Laws & Pending Legislation as of 2021 April | English Content | KÜTÜPHANE | Summary of Turkish Animal Laws & Pending Legislation as of 2021 April | English Content | KÜTÜPHANE | HAYTAP - Hayvan Hakları Federasyonu (in Turkish). Retrieved 2022-08-18.
  57. ^ SABAH, DAILY (2022-01-07). "'Dangerous' dogs get new homes ahead of nationwide ban in Turkey". Daily Sabah. Retrieved 2022-08-18.
  58. ^ Esme (2022-07-20). "Stray Dogs in Turkey: Everything You Need to Know". Journeying The Globe. Retrieved 2022-08-18.
  59. ^ "4 Nisan Sokak Hayvanları Günü: Türkiye'de sokak hayvanları ne durumda ve neden tartışılıyor?". BBC News Türkçe (in Turkish). Retrieved 2022-08-18.
  60. ^ Rowan, Andrew; Kartal, Tamara (28 April 2018). "Dog Population & Dog Sheltering Trends in the United States of America". Animals. 8 (5): 68. doi:10.3390/ani8050068. PMC 5981279. PMID 29710771.
  61. ^ "sato, sata | Diccionario de la lengua española". «Diccionario de la lengua española» - Edición del Tricentenario.
  62. ^ Navarro, Mireya (6 January 1998). "Puerto Rico Tackles Issue of Stray Dogs' Suffering". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 July 2017.
  63. ^ "Contabilizan a los animales realengos [Census taken of stray animals]". El Nuevo Dia (in Spanish). 7 April 2018.
  64. ^ "First-ever 'Spayathon' Kicks Off in Puerto Rico". Veterinarian's Money Digest.
  65. ^ Shadbolt, Peter (3 June 2013). "Smugglers drive Thailand's grim trade in dog meat". CNN. Retrieved 14 November 2015.
  66. ^ Sattaburuth, Aekarach (2016-04-23). "Stray dogs set to reach one million". Bangkok Post. Retrieved 11 May 2016.
  67. ^ Yeung, Peter (2019-01-29). "Why People are Spending $10,000 on Pet Funerals in Bangkok". Vice. Retrieved 2019-01-29.
  68. ^ Sriangura, Vanniya (2016-03-07). "It's a Thai dog's life". Bangkok Post. Retrieved 7 March 2016.

Bibliography

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
  • Beck, Alan M .1973. The ecology of stray dogs: A study of free-ranging urban animals. West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University Press e-books.
  • Ecollage. 2002. Dog Population Management & Canine Rabies Control. India's Official Dog Control Program in an international context. Pune. pp. 1–9
  • Irvine, Leslie. 2003. "The Problem of Unwanted Pets: A Case Study in How Institutions "Think" about Clients' Needs" in Social Problems. Vol. 50, No. 4, pp. 550–566
  • Kato Masahiko, Hideki Yamamoto, Yoshihide Inukai and Shohei Kira. 2203. "Survey of the Stray Dog Population and the Health Education Program on the Prevention of Dog Bites and Dog-Acquired Infections: A Comparative Study in Nepal and Okayama Prefecture, Japan" in Acta Med. Okayama, Vol. 57. No. 5, pp. 261–266
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Free-ranging_dog&oldid=1256825043"