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Environmental impact of the Gulf wars

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Burning oil field, framed between the body and gun of a wrecked tank
Disabled tank and burning oil field

The First Gulf War (1990) and the 2003 Iraq War, also known as the Second Gulf War, brought about significant environmental degradation with several facets still negatively impacting the area today. As a frame of reference, the Persian Gulf countries consist of the following states: the UAE, Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Kuwait, with the latter two facing the most environmental damage following the two wars due to their central position in the conflict.

As is the case in similar situations involving modern warfare, many of the environmental issues can be traced back to the deployment of chemical agents which in turn have massively impacted the health of both military and civilian individuals involved in the conflict.[1]

This article presents the short and long-term effects of the First and Second Gulf Wars on the environment as well as the impacts on the health of those involved in the conflict.

Notable Events During the Gulf Wars and their Environmental Impact

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First Gulf War

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  • 2 August 1990: Iraq starts their invasion of Kuwait. Resolution 660 is passed by the UN and British and American troops deploy the first troops into Saudi Arabia - Operation Desert Shield starts.
  • 17 January 1991: Iraq fails to withdraw from Kuwait with the coalition responding with the launch of an aerial bombing campaign - Operation Desert Storm starts.
    • Over the course of just over a month, the coalition dropped over 85,000 tonnes of bombs in retaliation. It must be noted that not only does the detonation of explosive weapons cause severe physical and emotional damage to those in the target area but that it also has direct and deadly impacts on the surrounding environment. The destruction of infrastructure can potentially lead to the release of toxic materials and waste such as asbestos, hydrogen sulfide and ammonia. Additionally, the displacement of civilian populations from war-torn areas can lead to further destruction through the improper creation and regulation of refugee camps which can lead to environmental degradation from the clearing of space and the increased risk of issues such as water management and unsuitable waste disposal.[2]
    • Furthermore, part of the raids involved the use of napalm, a highly flammable chemical known to be highly toxic and carcinogenic.[3] The effects of napalm on both the human body and the environment have been well documented since its first military use, initially in World War II and infamously in the Vietnam War, with the most notable effect on the environment being the complete loss of biodiversity and the ecosystem's inability to regenerate due to the incendiary nature of the chemical.[4]
  • 23 February 1991: After a failed attempt by Iraq to goad Israel into an counterattack after Iraqi bombing, the coalition proceeded with a ground invasion of Kuwait and parts of Iraq.
    • In response to this increased military involvement, Iraqi troops were tasked with setting fire to the Kuwaiti oil fields during their retreat, enacting a form of scorched earth policy. Over 700 oil wells were set ablaze as a way to deter the advancement of the coalition's troops, an effort which proved to be unsuccessful.
  • 28 February 1991: Kuwait Liberation Campaign ended after less than a week of the ground invasion. Kuwaiti independence was restored.
  • April 1991: First oil wells were capped and the fires extinguished by a team of Kuwaiti firefighters and international relief efforts. Without intervention, the fires were predicted to last anywhere from two to five years.
  • 6 November 1991: Last oil well was capped.
    Plumes of black smoke from Kuwaiti oil well fires
    • The environmental damage caused by the oil fires was arguably the most impactful environmental catastrophe related to the First Gulf War. Discussion at the 1991 World Climate Conference in January included talks of a predicted nuclear winters, acid rain and immediate global warming spreading into Europe and Asia from the Persian epicentre.[5]
    • In reality, the only short-term impact of the fires was a drastic decrease in air quality in Persian Gulf countries, especially in Kuwait. With this decrease in air conditions, an increase in respiratory diseases was reported with the toxic gases created after the combustion of oil, particularly hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide, increasing rates of irritation of the eyes and airways.[6]

2003 Invasion of Iraq (Second Gulf War)

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  • 20 March 2003: Air strike on the presidential palace in Baghdad precedes the full invasion, organized by the coalition forces.
    • The following days saw the coalition's invasion through land, air and sea.
  • 21 March 2003: First reports of Iraqi soldiers setting fire to Iraqi oil wells are published in a repeat of the scorched earth tactics used in 1991; over the course of the war, around 40 oil wells were set ablaze.[7]
  • 1 May 2003: President George W. Bush announced that major combat operations and attacks would be ending. Period of occupation begins.
    • The main military equipment associated with environmental damage are, heavy artillery, cluster munitions, tanks, bombing, depleted uranium, incendiary weapons and the use of chemical weapons such as white phosphorus.[8]
      • As well as its use being highly controversial, white phosphorus when left to degrade can react with other chemicals to create highly toxic compounds which can stay active for extended periods of time.[9]
      • In a military context, depleted uranium is used to harden ammunition and tanks in order to maximize damage and defense but on impact, turns into small particles which can easily be inhaled or spread through the air to contaminate and pollute soil and water systems with its toxicity.[10]
  • In the lead up to the COP26 summit in 2021, The Red Cross commented on the environmental aftermath of the war highlighting issues such as unexploded weapons, land mines and the additional pressure put on the environment through large scale displacement and the movement of military equipment and troops.[11]
    US Marine Corps (USMC) personnel in an M1A1 Abrams Main Battle Tanks (MBT)
    • In this article, Adel Al-Attar, an ICRC advisor said the following: "In southern Iraq, you have an environment that has been damaged by years of conflict, poor environmental management and weak governance. When you add climate change into the mix, you have the perfect storm."[11]
Further information: Gulf War and Iraq War

The effects

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Environment

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The environmental impact of the Gulf War of 1991 was unprecedented. Huge quantities of crude oil, going up to approximately 3.5 million tons, were released into the desert, while another 800,000 tons of oil spilled into the Persian Gulf.[12] 

Consequently, the burning oil wells created 250 oil lakes covering approximately 50 square kilometers in the desert due to the sixty million barrels of oil that came from the burning oil wells.[13]

As a result, between six and eight million barrels of oil are estimated to be at the core of marine environment pollution.

By the February 27th ceasefire, the Saudi coast had suffered extensive damage over a distance of more than 100 miles. In this regard, oil, up to 15 inches deep in certain areas, devastated the nesting grounds of endangered sea turtles, birds, fisheries, and shrimp-spawning areas.[14] Beaches, tide pools, and seagrass beds had been damaged, and thousands of rare herons, flamingos, and other bird species were killed.[14]

Furthermore, the Sea Island Terminal oil spill on January 25, 1991, off the Saudi coast, was estimated to cover a stretch of approximately 10–15 miles during the Gulf War ceasefire.[15] The second major oil slick occurred off the Kuwaiti-Saudi coast, also originating from the Mina al Bakr offshore terminal of Iraq, with a length of about 10 miles. By February 26, 1991, more than 600 oil wells were burning, thereby forming a thick smoke that engulfed the region and resulted in a significant drop in the temperatures in Kuwait.

Moreover, the environmental repercussions extended over 1000 kilometres away to southern Turkey, where black acidic rain fell in March 1991. This rain was a result of carbon particles from the burning Kuwaiti oil fires, carried by winds and affecting countries like Iraq, Iran, and Syria.   In addition, Iran experienced water supply and crop irrigation issues due to the black rain, as well.[16]

The 1991 Gulf War entailed further environmental consequences, such as damage to sewage treatment plants in Kuwait, leading to the release of nearly 50,000 cubic meters of raw sewage into Kuwait Bay daily.[17]

Eventually, approximately 800 oil wells in Kuwait kept on burning in Kuwait for several months, leading to the release of pollutants such as nitrogen oxide, radium, hydrogen carbons, and hydrogen sulfide.[13]

The atmospheric pollution resulting from the oil fires had health implications for humans, as it led to an increase in oil-related heavy metals in the brain, including indicating nickel, vanadium, selenium, and cobalt in brain tumours, which can cause DNA damage and lipid peroxidation, as evidenced by airborne dust samples collected after the war.[13]

Health

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The use of chemicals agents

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During the Gulf Wars, the populations were exposed to chemical agents. Indeed, chemicals agent, for example Depleted Uranium (DU), was used for the first time during the first Gulf War in the tank kinetic energy penetrator or autocannon rounds.

After the Gulf Wars, the United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) and various research organizations have been assessing potential causes of health issues among veterans, including exposure to chemical and biological weapons.

Nonetheless, the use of chemical agents by both the US Army and Iraqi forces remains to date a subject of debate. In 1997, the US government published a report that states that:

"The US Intelligence Community (IC) has assessed that Iraq did not use chemical weapons during the Gulf War. However, based on a comprehensive review of intelligence information and relevant information made available by the United Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM), we conclude that chemical warfare (CW) agent was released as a result of the US postwar demolition of rockets with chemical warheads in a bunker (called Bunker 73 by Iraq) and a pit in an area known as Khamisiyah."[18]

For example, over 100,000 Gulf War Veterans have been exposed to these nerve agents chemicals during the demolition of a munitions storage depot in Khamisiyah.[19]

A study by the Boston School of Public Health has revealed a correlation between veterans deployed in Iraq and the reporting of post-war health symptoms. After their return from the Persian Gulf War, many veterans experienced health symptoms and medical problems. This report states that:

"Persian Gulf-deployed veterans were more likely to report neurological, pulmonary, gastrointestinal, cardiac, dermatological, musculoskeletal, psychological and neuropsychological system symptoms than German veterans."[20]

Gulf War Syndrome

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The US Department of Veterans Affairs and the National Academy of Science (NAS) released multiple reports on the Gulf war illnesses, following the conclusion of the Gulf Wars.

According to a 2007 report on Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses (RAC) [21] Veterans in Iraq were exposed to various chemical agents including DU, pesticides, nerve gas sarin, and multiple vaccinations.

The report from Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses (RAC)[22] established the link between neurological veterans' illnesses and the exposure neurotoxins.

The term "Gulf War illness" or "Gulf War syndrome" refers to the illness and neurological symptoms as "fatigue, muscle and joint pain, headaches, loss of memory and poor sleep"[23] experienced by veterans after the 1991 Gulf War. This syndrome was associated with different causes such as exposure to depleted uranium, sarin nerve agents, organophosphate pesticides, and to a lesser extent oil well fire, Anthrax vaccine and combat stress.

Cancer

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In the decade following Gulf War I, veterans and Iraqi physicians reported a sharp increase in severe health problems, including cancer, which were attributed to the use of depleted uranium bullets by the United States.[24] Depleted uranium is known to be carcinogenic and has been associated with neurologic health problems.[25][26]

As a consequence of weapons testing, military research, and the extensive use of approximately 1200 tonnes of munitions during the war, Iraq was left grappling with depleted uranium contamination, resulting in elevated levels in the soil.[26] Therefore, by 2012, the incidence of lung and breast cancer, Leukemia, and Lymphoma cases had doubled to tripled in many areas of Iraq. The presence of contaminated soil likely affected human health through the food chain, presenting long-term radiation hazards.[26]

Post-traumatic Stress disorder

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In 1995, Kuwait witnessed a notable incidences of posttraumatic stress disorder. Approximately 27 percent of the population in Kuwait have this psychiatric disorder. 66 percent of those with diagnosable post-traumatic disorder were still dreaming nightmares about some war events. In addition, many boys were dreaming different dreams about Saddam trying to kill them or hurt their families. A documentary movie about affected families was made. A boy saw his father tortured and then killed by the Iraqi soldiers; after this, the boy lost the ability to speak. Another affected victim has speech problems because Iraqi soldiers forced her to watch her two sons killed.

Fertility Problems

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Source:[27]

Some studies point out a link between fertility problems and the Gulf wars. US veterans from the Gulf Wars faced risks of infertility.[28] Indeed, research shows that deployed veterans during the Gulf wars faced issues concerning fertility, conceptions or live births, and pregnancy fathered problems[28]

In times of war, the fertility of the population is also affected. Researches show that the fertility trend in Iraq was in decline, and the war emphasize this trend.[29] Moreover, the use of chemicals weapons affected the population fertility. The case of Fallujah is an example of the impacts of the war on fertility. The city of Fallujah had been bombed during the war and chemical agents were used. Today, doctors and researchers found that there is an increase in congenital defects and infertility.[30] Many children were born with nervous system problems.

Cleanup

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The Persian Gulf countries have a proven record of cooperating towards cleaning up the Gulf ruin and preventing future havoc.

For instance, over the years volunteer Kuwaiti divers have been cleaning the benthos.[31] They have extracted two cannons and seven shells. It was common to find a turtle caught in fishing nets. Saudi Aramco was one of the largest contributors to the cleaning process. It provided support to other Oil-response teams, distributing protection equipment and materials. Moreover, many Saudi Aramco employees were involved in volunteer teams to clean up marine life.

The Royal Commission in Jubail has established a new program to monitor oil spill or any other chemical materials. In addition, it studies the possibility of oil leakage and how it can be stopped in an emergency. Also, Aramco stores additional anti-pollution equipment and ships.

Furthermore, the Gulf Area cleaning endeavours persist nowadays and further extend to the international agenda and fall within the efforts to meet the 14th sustainable development goals of the United Nations 2030 Agenda. [32]

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Within a span of two months after the end of the 1990-1991 Gulf War, an unprecedented post-war mechanism called the United Nations Compensation Commission (UNCC) was established, marking a significant development in the history of international armed conflicts. The primary objective of this mechanism was not only to assist neighbouring nations in recovering from the extensive personal and financial damages incurred during the war but also to facilitate the restoration of the environmental harm that had been inflicted.[33]

In fact, the Gulf Wars gave the impetus to foster public debate about further law-making in the international environmental field and filling the gaps of a legal regime considered unsatisfactory by the environmental community. [34]

In this perspective, after the conflict, it was expected that neighboring countries would receive reparations for the damages caused, and Iraq's oil revenues were seen as a viable source of funding. To address this, the UNCC was established with the objective of processing claims and providing compensation for losses and harm resulting from Iraq's illegal invasion and occupation of Kuwait. The 2.69 million claims that were processed were categorized based on the claimant and the type of compensation sought.[35]

Other than multiple aspects such as personal injuries, fatalities, financial losses suffered by individuals, expenses incurred by neighbouring countries for hosting refugees, as well as damage to businesses and government properties, environmental damage and depletion of natural resources also fell under the "F4" sub-category.[36]

Through various expert panels, evaluated 170 F4 claims originating from 12 countries (Australia, Canada, Germany, Iran, Jordan, Kuwait, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, the UK, and the USA) and awarded a total of US$5,261 million to 10 countries. This amount constituted only 6.2% of the total claims made and was paid out in five instalments over a span of five years.[37]

However, even though claims from the Netherlands and Turkey were unsuccessful and did not receive compensation, stringent oversight measures were implemented to ensure that the funds were utilized as specified, with regular reporting being conducted. To this date, all payments have now been concluded, although certain projects have taken more time than others to be finalized.[38]

References

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  1. ^ "VA.gov | Veterans Affairs". www.publichealth.va.gov. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
  2. ^ "We must not ignore explosive weapons' environmental impact". CEOBS. 2021-05-12. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
  3. ^ Guldner, Gregory T.; Chen, Richard J.; Knight, Curtis (2024), "Napalm Toxicity", StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID 30725812, retrieved 2024-05-21
  4. ^ "Napalm, An American Biography". Napalm, An American Biography. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
  5. ^ Husain, Tahir (July 1994). "Kuwaiti oil fires—Modeling revisited". Atmospheric Environment. 28 (13): 2211–2226. Bibcode:1994AtmEn..28.2211H. doi:10.1016/1352-2310(94)90361-1. ISSN 1352-2310.
  6. ^ Lange, Jeffrey L.; Schwartz, David A.; Doebbeling, Bradley N.; Heller, Jack M.; Thorne, Peter S. (November 2002). "Exposures to the Kuwait oil fires and their association with asthma and bronchitis among gulf war veterans". Environmental Health Perspectives. 110 (11): 1141–1146. doi:10.1289/ehp.021101141. ISSN 0091-6765. PMC 1241071. PMID 12417486.
  7. ^ "CNN.com - UK: Iraq torches seven oil wells - Mar. 21, 2003". edition.cnn.com. Retrieved 2024-05-22.
  8. ^ Certini, Giacomo; Scalenghe, Riccardo; Woods, William I. (December 2013). "The impact of warfare on the soil environment". Earth-Science Reviews. 127: 1–15. Bibcode:2013ESRv..127....1C. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.08.009. ISSN 0012-8252.
  9. ^ "White Phosphorus | Public Health Statement | ATSDR". wwwn.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2024-05-22.
  10. ^ "Depleted Uranium, Devastated Health: Military Operations and Environmental Injustice in the Middle East". Harvard International Review. 2021-09-22. Retrieved 2024-05-22.
  11. ^ a b "Iraq's perfect storm – a climate and environmental crisis amid the scars of war". 2021-07-19. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  12. ^ Sand, Peter H. (2011). "Catastrophic Environmental Damage and the Gulf War Reparation Awards: The Experience of the UN Compensation Commission". Proceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting. 105: 430–433. doi:10.5305/procannmeetasil.105.0430. ISSN 0272-5037. S2CID 156362940.
  13. ^ a b c Hegazy, Ahmad K. (1997). "International Conference on the Long-Term Environmental Effects of the Gulf War: Held in Kuwait, during 18–20 November 1996". Environmental Conservation. 24 (1): 83–84. ISSN 0376-8929. JSTOR 44519245.
  14. ^ a b Sand, Peter H. (2011). "Catastrophic Environmental Damage and the Gulf War Reparation Awards: The Experience of the UN Compensation Commission". Proceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting. 105: 430–433. doi:10.5305/procannmeetasil.105.0430. ISSN 0272-5037. S2CID 156362940.
  15. ^ https://international-review.icrc.org/sites/default/files/S0020860400071151a.pdf [bare URL PDF]
  16. ^ Glassman, Laura; Walsh, Jacquelyn (1991). "War in the Gulf: Post Mortem of an Environmental Tragedy: Oil Spills and Oil Fires". Earth Island Journal. 6 (2): 43–45. ISSN 1041-0406. JSTOR 43882945.
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  18. ^ Golomb, Beatrice Alexandra (2008-03-18). "Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and Gulf War illnesses". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (11): 4295–4300. Bibcode:2008PNAS..105.4295G. doi:10.1073/pnas.0711986105. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 2393741. PMID 18332428.
  19. ^ "Chemical & Biological Weapons during Gulf War - Public Health". www.publichealth.va.gov. Retrieved 2022-05-09.
  20. ^ Proctor, S. P.; Heeren, T.; White, R. F.; Wolfe, J.; Borgos, M. S.; Davis, J. D.; Pepper, L.; Clapp, R.; Sutker, P. B.; Vasterling, J. J.; Ozonoff, D. (December 1998). "Health status of Persian Gulf War veterans: self-reported symptoms, environmental exposures and the effect of stress". International Journal of Epidemiology. 27 (6): 1000–1010. doi:10.1093/ije/27.6.1000. ISSN 0300-5771. PMID 10024195.
  21. ^ "Committee on Veterans Affairs: Hearings". 2013-02-27. Archived from the original on 2013-02-27. Retrieved 2022-04-15.
  22. ^ "Scientific Progress in Understanding Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses: Report and Recommendations" (PDF). United States Department of Veterans Affairs. September 2004. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 March 2012. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
  23. ^ Gronseth, Gary S. (2005-05-01). "Gulf War Syndrome: A Toxic Exposure? A Systematic Review". Neurologic Clinics. Toxic and Environmental Neurology. 23 (2): 523–540. doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2004.12.011. ISSN 0733-8619. PMID 15757795.
  24. ^ Peterson, Scott (1999). "The Gulf War Battlefield Still "Hot" with Depleted Uranium". Middle East Report (211): 2–5. doi:10.2307/3013322. ISSN 0899-2851. JSTOR 3013322.
  25. ^ Shaki, Fatemeh; Zamani, Ehsan; Arjmand, Abdollah; Pourahmad, Jalal (December 2019). "A Review on Toxicodynamics of Depleted Uranium". Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 18 (Special Issue): 90–100. doi:10.22037/ijpr.2020.113045.14085. PMC 7393059. PMID 32802091.
  26. ^ a b c Fathi, Riyad Abdullah; Matti, Lilyan Yaqup; Al-Salih, Hana Said; Godbold, Douglas (2013). "Environmental pollution by depleted uranium in Iraq with special reference to Mosul and possible effects on cancer and birth defect rates". Medicine, Conflict and Survival. 29 (1): 7–25. doi:10.1080/13623699.2013.765173. ISSN 1362-3699. JSTOR 27018298. PMID 23729095. S2CID 45404607.
  27. ^ "Pooky's five steps to sustainable lighting". Pooky Lighting. 20 April 2020. Retrieved 2022-06-22.
  28. ^ a b Group, British Medical Journal Publishing (2004-07-22). "Gulf war veterans have fertility problems". BMJ. 329 (7459): 0–a. doi:10.1136/bmj.329.7459.0-a. ISSN 0959-8138. S2CID 220089580. {{cite journal}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  29. ^ Cetorelli, Valeria (December 2014). "The Effect on Fertility of the 2003-2011 War in Iraq". Population and Development Review. 40 (4): 581–604. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2014.00001.x. PMC 4539598. PMID 26300572.
  30. ^ Jamail, Dahr. "Fallujah: New kind of siege". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 2022-05-09.
  31. ^ "Kuwait Diving Team continues cooperation with UN bureau to maintain clean sea". KUNA. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  32. ^ "Cleaning the coast of the Persian Gulf". Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  33. ^ Payne, Cymie, and Peter Sand (eds), Gulf War Reparations and the UN Compensation Commission: Environmental Liability (New York, 2011; online edn, Oxford Academic, 20 Apr. 2015), https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199732203.001.0001, accessed 25 May 2023.
  34. ^ https://international-review.icrc.org/sites/default/files/irrc-879-bothe-bruch-diamond-jensen.pdf [bare URL PDF]
  35. ^ "Press Release – United Nations Compensation Commission Pays Out US$270 Million" (PDF). United Nations Compensation Commission. 23 July 2019. Retrieved 6 August 2019.
  36. ^ "The Claims | UNCC".
  37. ^ file:///Users/letiziaferhati/Downloads/_book_edcoll_9789047421917_Bej.9789004161566.i-1188_011-preview.pdf
  38. ^ "Iraq makes final reparation payment to Kuwait for 1990 invasion | UN News". 9 February 2022.
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