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1913 Easter tornado outbreak

Coordinates: 41°15′N 96°00′W / 41.25°N 96°W / 41.25; -96
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1913 Easter tornado outbreak
The Omaha F4, the deadliest tornado of the outbreak
Tornado outbreak
Tornadoes≥ 15
Maximum ratingF4+ tornado
DurationMarch 23, 1913
Overall effects
Fatalities192
Injuries853+
Damage$3 million ($92,480,000 in 2024 USD)[note 1]
Areas affectedCentral United States
Part of the tornadoes and tornado outbreaks of 1913

On March 23, 1913—Easter Sunday—a devastating tornado outbreak affected the northern Great Plains and sections of the Upper Midwest, lasting approximately 31⁄2 hours.[note 2] It was the most violent tornado outbreak to affect the northern Great Plains on so early a date in the year—a record that still stands as of 2020. That day, four F4 tornadoes affected portions of eastern Nebraska and western Iowa, killing at least 168 people. The deadliest tornado of the day was a violent tornado, retroactively rated F4 on the present-day Fujita scale,[note 3] that grew to 1⁄4 mile (440 yd) in width as it passed through northern Omaha, Nebraska, killing at least 94 people in the city proper and three in rural areas. Damage in Omaha reached at least F4, possibly even F5, intensity, though confirmation of F5 damage could not be determined from available evidence. The tornado is the 13th deadliest ever to affect the United States and the deadliest to hit the U.S. state of Nebraska as of 2014. No other violent tornado would affect Omaha for another 62 years. Outside the Great Plains, the outbreak of March 23 also produced two other F4 tornadoes, one each in Missouri and Indiana, including a devastating path more than 1⁄2 mi (880 yd) through southern Terre Haute, Indiana, killing 21 people and injuring 250. In all, tornadoes struck Nebraska, Iowa, Louisiana, Indiana, and Missouri, though only significant events were recorded and other, weaker tornadoes may have gone undetected.

Background

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A series of potent storm systems traversed the US during March 1913,[8] described by the US Weather Bureau as "...the most extraordinary situation in regards to the weather since the creation of the bureau." Anomalously high moisture had gathered near the US Gulf Coast, as an intense upper level storm system moved in from the west. According to retrospective numerical modeling of this event,[9] a strong cap aloft was in place over the central Plains, as is common as the elevated mixed layer advects eastward from the Rockies. Observations taken at 13Z 23 March 1913 showed that surface low pressure was located in Colorado, and a warm front stretched due eastward from there into Illinois. Morning temperatures near this front were in the 30s. South of the front warmer and moister air was present, but dewpoints in the upper 50s were confined to southern Oklahoma and Arkansas, far away from where the tornadoes were to later occur in eastern Nebraska and western Iowa.

As the day progressed, the surface low ejected through Nebraska, with a dry line and trailing cold front. South winds blowing 40-50 knots at times brought the moister air rapidly northward. One of the worst dust storms on record occurred behind the dry line in western Kansas, but in the warm sector the day remained dry until mid afternoon when light showers began to form in central Nebraska. A cooperative observer in Osceola noted that the wind shifted from S to NW at 2230Z (4:30 PM local). Professors at the University of Nebraska at Lincoln noted that the relative humidity there jumped from 53% at 2150Z to 78% at 2230Z, indicating much higher dewpoints had rapidly arrived in Lincoln since the cold front was still to the west near Osceola. They also noted that the surface low passed just to the north of Omaha and was in western Iowa at 01Z 24 March 1913.

With all of this observed information, it is likely that the quality moisture required to produce convection strong enough for tornadoes arrived just an hour or two before the strong forcing associated with the surface low pressure and attendant frontal systems. At the time of the tornadoes it is estimated that surface temperatures were in the upper 60s, dewpoints were in the upper 50s, and surface winds were southerly around 25-30 knots. Numerical modeling estimates that 500 hPa flow was around 80 knots from the WSW and that CAPE was from 1000 to 2000 J/kg. These conditions are similar to those found in other tornado outbreaks.[10] Tornadic storms developed from 5:00-6:00 PM local time and while storm motions were to the NE, the prevalence of tornadic storms moved southward with the dryline/cold front intersection, lasting until 8:00 PM local in NW Missouri. A serial derecho then formed and moved across Iowa and Illinois through the nighttime hours, hitting Chicago in the early morning.

Outbreak statistics

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Outbreak death toll
State Total
Indiana 21
Iowa 33
Louisiana 1
Missouri 2
Nebraska 135
Totals 192
All deaths were tornado-related

Confirmed tornadoes

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Confirmed tornadoes by Fujita rating
FU F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total
? 1 ? 5 3 6 0 ≥ 15

Prior to 1990, there is a likely undercount of tornadoes, particularly E/F0–1, with reports of weaker tornadoes becoming more common as population increased. A sharp increase in the annual average E/F0–1 count by approximately 200 tornadoes was noted upon the implementation of NEXRAD Doppler weather radar in 1990–1991.[11][note 4] 1974 marked the first year where significant tornado (E/F2+) counts became homogenous with contemporary values, attributed to the consistent implementation of Fujita scale assessments.[15][note 3] Numerous discrepancies on the details of tornadoes in this outbreak exist between sources. The total count of tornadoes and ratings differs from various agencies accordingly. The list below documents information from the most contemporary official sources alongside assessments from tornado historian Thomas P. Grazulis.

March 23 event

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Confirmed tornadoes – Sunday, March 23, 1913[note 5]
F# Location County / Parish State Time (UTC) Path length Width[note 6] Damage
F3 W of Craig (NE) to NW of Blencoe (IA) Burt (NE), Monona (IA) NE, IA 23:00–? 15 mi (24 km) 200 yd (180 m) Un­known
This intense tornado hit rural areas, collectively affecting 15 or more farms. Striking the northwestern side of Craig, it also destroyed 11 homes. 13 people were injured.[19]
F4 SE of Mead (NE) to northern Yutan (NE) to Woodbine (IA) Saunders (NE), Douglas (NE), Washington (NE), Harrison (IA) NE, IA 23:30–? 62–63 mi (100–101 km) 800 yd (730 m) $100,000
22 deaths – This violent tornado leveled the northern side of Yutan, claiming 17 lives there, half of them children's. In town the tornado destroyed or damaged 40 homes, along with a quartet of churches. It also killed a few people in Iowa before dissipating, as well as three more near Yutan. In all 50 injuries were reported. The tornado passed just west of Logan, Iowa.[20][19][21]
F3 Lincoln to Prairie Home to E of Greenwood Lancaster, Cass NE 23:30–? 15 mi (24 km) 150 yd (140 m) Un­known
Touching down near Havelock, Lincoln, this event was part of the Omaha tornado family. It destroyed several homes and injured a few people.[19]
F4 Ralston (NE) to northwestern Omaha (NE) to S of Arcadia (IA) Sarpy (NE), Douglas (NE), Pottawattamie (IA), Harrison (IA), Shelby (IA), Carroll (IA) NE, IA 23:45–? 85–90 mi (137–145 km) 400 yd (370 m) $2,500,000
103 deaths – See section on this tornado – 350 people were injured.
F4 Southern Bellevue (NE) to southern Council Bluffs (IA) to SE of Glidden (IA) Sarpy (NE), Pottawattamie (IA), Harrison (IA), Shelby (IA), Audubon (IA), Carroll (IA) NE, IA 00:15–? ~98 mi (158 km) 400 yd (370 m) $400,000
25 deaths – Part of a two-member family, this tornado leveled small, possibly frail homes in Iowa. A secondary tornado may have caused 15 mi (24 km) or more of damage. 75 injuries occurred. The tornado passed east of Harlan, Iowa, near Gray, and near Carroll.[22][19][21]
F4 S of Douglas (NE) to Berlin (NE) to E of Macedonia (IA) Otoe (NE), Cass (NE), Mills (IA), Pottawattamie (IA) NE, IA 00:15–? 65–75 mi (105–121 km) 800 yd (730 m) Un­known
18 deaths – This potent tornado flattened numerous farms in Nebraska, causing a dozen deaths in Berlin, now Otoe. Hitting Rock Bluff—then Rock Cliffs—it claimed still another life, then leveled more farms in Iowa. In all 100 injuries were reported.[20][19]
F2 NW of Saline Bienville LA 01:00–? 6 mi (9.7 km) 200 yd (180 m) Un­known
1+ death – This tornado destroyed small tenant homes, as well as a spacious home. It or a related event may have killed one more person in Bossier Parish. Five people were injured.[23]
F2 Burchard Pawnee NE 01:00–? ≥5 mi (8.0 km) Un­known Un­known
This tornado unroofed and destroyed four homes, along with a school. This or a separate-but-related tornado may have destroyed a few barns in nearby Barneston.[23][21]
F2+ Falls City Richardson NE ~01:00–? Un­known Un­known Un­known
A tornado felled utility poles and trees, while leveling a large warehouse.[21]
F3+ Mount Ayr Ringgold IA ~02:00–? Un­known Un­known Un­known
Apparently intense, this tornado felled large trees and chimneys, while blowing a church 8 in (0.67 ft; 0.20 m) off its foundation.[21]
F4 N of Prairieton to southern Terre Haute to near Brazil Vigo, Clay IN 02:30–? 22 mi (35 km) 1,000 yd (910 m) Un­known
21 deaths – This tornado virtually leveled a five-block swath of Terre Haute, destroying or damaging 300 homes in town. Damaging floods followed the tornado, adding to losses. 250 people were injured.[22][23]
F4 SW of Savannah to E of Albany Andrew, Gentry, Harrison MO 02:30–? 45 mi (72 km) 200 yd (180 m) Un­known
2 deaths – This tornado destroyed buildings on 30 farms in Gentry County. It also swept away at least one home and leveled many farms, while destroying other homes. Eight injuries occurred.[22][23]
F2+ Southern Fremont Dodge NE Un­known Un­known Un­known Un­known
A tornado tossed a 150-foot-tall (46 m) smokestack 30 ft (9.1 m).[21][24]
F0 Guthrie Center Guthrie IA Un­known Un­known Un­known Un­known
This tornado hit a farm, damaging several outbuildings.[21]
F2+ S of Casey to between Stuart and Menlo Adair, Guthrie IA Un­known Un­known Un­known Un­known
A tornado destroyed homes and barns, while felling trees and power poles.[21]

Omaha, Nebraska

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41°15′N 96°00′W / 41.25°N 96°W / 41.25; -96

This section is about the 1913 tornado. For the 1975 tornado, see 1975 Omaha tornado outbreak § Omaha, Nebraska.
Omaha, Nebraska
Damage in Omaha
Meteorological history
FormedMarch 23, 1913, 6:45 p.m. CDT (UTC−05:00)
F4+ tornado
on the Fujita scale
Overall effects
Fatalities103 (94 in Omaha)
Injuries350+
Damage$8,000,000 ($246,630,000 in 2024 USD)

The Omaha Easter Sunday tornado struck Omaha, Nebraska, at approximately 6:00 p.m. local standard time on March 23, 1913. The storm's path was reported as being 1⁄4–1⁄2 mi (0.40–0.80 km) wide and contained multiple vortices.[25]

The Omaha tornado followed the path of Little Papillion Creek as it entered the city. It moved through the west side of town alongside the Missouri Pacific Railroad, destroying the small workers cottages in the area. The tornado was so strong that steel train cars were later found pierced by pieces of shattered lumber from the demolished homes.

By the time the tornado reached Dewey Avenue it was five blocks wide. When it reached Farnam Hill, the tornado followed a shallow valley through this upscale neighborhood. The large mansions of Farnam were no match for the winds, and many houses were torn to pieces, along with several in the Gold Coast Historic District including the Joslyn Castle, which sustained considerable damage. Buildings were found chopped in half, pipes and supports dangling into space, such as the Duchesne Academy which was nearly obliterated.

At North 24th and Lake Streets in the Near North Side neighborhood a large African American crowd was enjoying an Easter Sunday performance when the tornado flattened the building and killed more than two dozen people. Other brick structures in this small commercial district took similar hits, and more people died here than in any other part of Omaha. A streetcar running down North 24th Street in North Omaha encountered the tornado near this area. Thanks to the quick action of operator Ord Hensley in ordering passengers to lie on the floor of the car, everyone survived. Later, photographers would spot the wrecked machine and would call it the "Streetcar of Death", imagining that no one on board could have survived given the immense damage.

The F4 tornado skirted the downtown area and moved over the Missouri River into Iowa, killing a few children near Beebeetown and causing further damage. Passing north of Persia, the tornado tracked through or near Defiance, Panama, and Manilla. South of Arcadia it hurled a farmhouse 50 ft (15 m), shortly before dissipating. Tornado expert Thomas P. Grazulis variously estimated a total path length of 40 to 45 mi (64 to 72 km), but subsequent analysis by other researchers in 2007 indicated a path more than twice as long.[20][19][21]

In all, 103 people died, 94 of which were in Omaha, and at least 350 were injured. Reportedly, 1,700 homes in Omaha alone were destroyed or damaged, with $8 million total damage from the storm, $51⁄2 million of which was in Omaha (financial damage estimates vary; the NOAA reports more damage than this). In the aftermath of the tornado, a cold front moved into Omaha and caused further misery, as newly homeless residents struggled to escape the snowy weather.[26] Many homes, mostly small, throughout the northern side of the city were leveled, and "dozens" were swept away.[20] Photographs at the time showed empty foundations, suggestive of F5 damage, but these may have been related to post-tornado clean-up.[23]

Non-tornadic effects

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The same storm system that struck Nebraska created a dust storm in Kansas and hit Missouri with hail and heavy rain.[27][28][29][30] The Omaha tornado marked the beginning of the destruction from storms associated with the Great Flood of 1913.[31] On Monday and Tuesday, March 24 and 25, the storms brought heavy rains to the Midwest and upstate New York, causing widespread flooding.

Aftermath

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Remarkably, operators from the Webster Telephone Exchange Building in Omaha did not leave their stations either during or after the tornado. The building was used as an infirmary for the wounded and dying, with physicians and nurses coming from area hospitals. US Army troops from Fort Omaha set up headquarters in the building, as soldiers patrolled the area for looters and to offer assistance.

Initially, James Dahlman, the longtime mayor of Omaha, refused assistance from any outside sources, including the federal government. However, he relented after seeing the extent of the damage throughout the city. The federal government poured in assistance soon after. The massive damage caused by the tornado inspired new engineering techniques aimed at creating a tornado-proof edifice. The first such building was the First National Bank of Omaha building, built in 1916 at 1603 Farnam Street. The 14-story building was built in a "U"-shape.

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ All losses are in 1913 United States dollars unless otherwise noted.
  2. ^ An outbreak is generally defined as a group of at least six tornadoes (the number sometimes varies slightly according to local climatology) with no more than a six-hour gap between individual tornadoes. An outbreak sequence, prior to (after) the start of modern records in 1950, is defined as a period of no more than two (one) consecutive days without at least one significant (F2 or stronger) tornado.[1]
  3. ^ a b The Fujita scale was devised under the aegis of scientist T. Theodore Fujita in the early 1970s. Prior to the advent of the scale in 1971, tornadoes in the United States were officially unrated.[2][3] Tornado ratings were retroactively applied to events prior to the formal adoption of the F-scale by the National Weather Service.[4] While the Fujita scale has been superseded by the Enhanced Fujita scale in the U.S. since February 1, 2007,[5] Canada used the old scale until April 1, 2013;[6] nations elsewhere, like the United Kingdom, apply other classifications such as the TORRO scale.[7]
  4. ^ Historically, the number of tornadoes globally and in the United States was and is likely underrepresented: research by Grazulis on annual tornado activity suggests that, as of 2001, only 53% of yearly U.S. tornadoes were officially recorded. Documentation of tornadoes outside the United States was historically less exhaustive, owing to the lack of monitors in many nations and, in some cases, to internal political controls on public information.[12] Most countries only recorded tornadoes that produced severe damage or loss of life.[13] Significant low biases in U.S. tornado counts likely occurred through the early 1990s, when advanced NEXRAD was first installed and the National Weather Service began comprehensively verifying tornado occurrences.[14]
  5. ^ All dates are based on the local time zone where the tornado touched down; however, all times are in Coordinated Universal Time and dates are split at midnight CST/CDT for consistency.
  6. ^ The listed width values are primarily the average/mean width of the tornadoes, with those having known maximum widths denoted by ♯. From 1952 to 1994, reports largely list mean width whereas contemporary years list maximum width.[16] Values provided by Grazulis are the average width, with estimates being rounded down (i.e. 0.5 mi (0.80 km) is rounded down from 880 yards to 800 yards.[17][18]

References

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  1. ^ Schneider, Russell S.; Brooks, Harold E.; Schaefer, Joseph T. (2004). Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003) (PDF). 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society. Retrieved September 17, 2019.
  2. ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 141.
  3. ^ Grazulis 2001a, p. 131.
  4. ^ Edwards et al. 2013, p. 641–642.
  5. ^ Edwards, Roger (March 5, 2015). "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". The Online Tornado FAQ (by Roger Edwards, SPC). Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  6. ^ "Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF-Scale)". Environment and Climate Change Canada. Environment and Climate Change Canada. June 6, 2013. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  7. ^ "The International Tornado Intensity Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. 2016. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  8. ^ Evan Kuchera (2014-07-05). "23 March 1913 Omaha area tornadoes". Retrieved 2014-07-05.
  9. ^ Compo, G. P.; et al. (2011). "The Twentieth Century Reanalysis Project". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 137 (654): 1–28. doi:10.1002/qj.776. hdl:2434/167622. ISSN 0035-9009.
  10. ^ Craven, Jeffrey P.; Brooks, Harold E.; Hart, John A. (2004). "Baseline climatology of sounding derived parameters associated with deep, moist convection" (PDF). Natl. Wea. Dig. 28 (1): 13–24.
  11. ^ Agee and Childs 2014, p. 1496.
  12. ^ Grazulis 2001a, pp. 251–4.
  13. ^ Edwards, Roger (March 5, 2015). "The Online Tornado FAQ (by Roger Edwards, SPC)". Storm Prediction Center: Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes. Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  14. ^ Cook & Schaefer 2008, p. 3135.
  15. ^ Agee and Childs 2014, pp. 1497, 1503.
  16. ^ Agee and Childs 2014, p. 1494.
  17. ^ Brooks 2004, p. 310.
  18. ^ Grazulis 1990, p. ix.
  19. ^ a b c d e f Grazulis 1993, p. 737.
  20. ^ a b c d Grazulis 1984, p. A-26.
  21. ^ a b c d e f g h i Trudy E. Bell (2007). The Devastating Nebraska–Iowa–Missouri Tornadoes of 1913: Harbingers of the U.S.'s Now-Forgotten Most Widespread Natural Disaster (Report). Archived from the original on 27 April 2015. Retrieved 17 October 2024.
  22. ^ a b c Grazulis 1984, p. A-27.
  23. ^ a b c d e Grazulis 1993, p. 738.
  24. ^ Bell, Trudy E. "1913 Flood - Articles and Research". Trudy E. Bell, M.A. Archived from the original on 26 March 2013. Retrieved 17 October 2024.
  25. ^ Condra, G. E.; G. A. Loveland (May 3, 1914). "The Iowa-Nebraska Tornadoes Of Easter Sunday, 1913". Bulletin of the American Geographical Society. XLVI (2): 100–107. doi:10.2307/199859. JSTOR 199859. Retrieved 2009-08-15.
  26. ^ Jackman, William James; Patton, Jacob Harris (1911). "Chapter CII. '1913, Great Damage By Tornado And Flood'". History of the American nation. Vol. 6. Western Press Association. pp. 1750–1756.
  27. ^ Christopher Klein (2013-03-25). "The Superstorm That Flooded America 100 Years Ago". History. Retrieved 2013-07-03.
  28. ^ "The Great Flood of 1913, 100 Years Later: The Storms of March 23–27, 1913". Silver Jackets. 2013. Retrieved 2013-07-29.
  29. ^ Williams 2013, p. 23.
  30. ^ Trudy E. Bell (Spring 2006). "Forgotten Waters: Indiana's Great Easter Flood of 1913" (PDF). Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History. 18 (2). Indiana Historical Society: 5–6.
  31. ^ Williams 2013, p. 16.

Bibliography

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