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Travel ban

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A travel ban is one of a variety of mobility restrictions imposed by governments. Bans can be universal or selective. The restrictions can be geographic, imposed by either the originating or destination jurisdiction. They can also be based on individual status, such as health or vaccination, or as driving bans during extreme weather events. During the COVID-19 pandemic, governments banned entry by residents of some or all other countries. Motivations for travel bans vary in nature with some being economic while others being more so politically motivated.[1]

For example, if New Zealand decides not to allow travel to the country, the government stops issuing travel visas. Without a valid visa, citizens of other countries cannot enter.[citation needed]

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During a war a country can decide to ban travel to a country or numerous ones even if it is a neutral party in that said conflict. One example is that of the United States in 1939 when it banned travel to any country that was at war with the 1939 Neutrality Act in response to the outbreak of World War II in Europe that year despite being a neutral party at the time.[2] Another example from that decade coming from the United States is that of the 1937 Neutrality Act which banned US citizens from travelling on any ship that was owned by or registered to a country that was at war.[3]

Travel bans relating to wars can also be gender-specific as well with one example being when Ukraine in 2022 banned all males aged 18 to 60 from leaving the country because of the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[4] A travel ban can also be instituted by a supranational union. One example of this is when the European Union banned air travel to Russia in response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[5] During the Russian invasion of Ukraine several European countries banned Russians from travelling to their respective countries.[6]

Bans issued due to foreign relations

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A 1952 map from the US Central Intelligence Agency showing areas of the Soviet Union that were banned from being visited by foreigners.

A country can ban travel to certain countries based on their status of foreign relations and/or if they are viewed with hostility by a said country. During the Cold War the United States banned travel by declaring travel invalid to communist countries starting with Yugoslavia in 1947 before expanding to Hungary (1949), Bulgaria (1950), Czechoslovakia (1951) and Albania, Bulgaria, China, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania along with the Soviet Union in 1952 unless it was "specifically endorsed".[7] Countries can also ban travel by certain foreign nationals to specific areas of a said country as done during the Cold War by the United States to nationals of the Soviet Union and vice versa; with the United States restrictions remaining in place from 1955 to 1962.[8] Japan from the end of World War II until 1964 when they hosted the 1964 Tokyo Summer Olympics banned travelling abroad for pleasure purposes.[9] American restrictions on travel to China ended in 1971[10] China banned its citizens from travelling abroad and tourists from abroad until after the death of Mao Zedong when the country began to allow limited travel to Hong Kong and Macau starting in 1983.[9]

With the end of the Cold War, travel became more liberalized. Romania would allow its citizens to travel freely to Western countries in January 1990.[11] Albania during the Cold War was one of Eastern Europe's most isolated countries and American tourists were banned from visiting until June 1990 with the exception of if one had family in Albania.[12] Another example of liberalization that happened at close to the same time was seen in South Korea which started to allow all its citizens to travel freely abroad starting in 1989 as previously they wanted to prevent contact with those who believed in communism and to prevent their currency from being weakened. The 1988 Summer Olympics which were held in Seoul are credited in part to this as it helped open up the country to the rest of the world.[13] China has also liberalized its travel since the end of the Cold War.[9]

Economic concerns

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Countries can limit travel not just out of purely diplomatic relations but also out of economic related concerns. In East Asia after World War II, many countries in East Asia limited or banned outbound travel from their own citizens but allowed foreign citizens to visit as a way to bring in foreign money which could help pay for their industrialization.[9]

Pandemic

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Due to the spread of COVID-19, many countries restricted international and/or domestic travel.

During the COVID-19 pandemic the United States implemented a travel ban for most of those arriving from member countries of the European Union, United Kingdom, India, Brazil, China[14] and Japan[15] with flights coming to India being banned starting on May 4, 2021,[16] but with the exception of U.S. citizens and those with permanent residency cards.[citation needed] The American travel ban lasted until November 8, 2021.[14] During the COVID-19 pandemic the United States closed the US-Mexico border to prevent the spread of COVID-19.[17]

Mexico was one country that did not institute a full border closure during the COVID-19 pandemic.[18][19]

Australia implemented some of the strictest measures during the COVID-19 pandemic with Australia closing it borders to any non-residents and prohibited Australians from going abroad "with a few exceptions".[20] Australia implemented a travel ban on China starting on February 1, 2020, when it was mostly confined to China with Iran (February 29), South Korea (March 5) and Italy (March 10) being later added[21] until international borders were closed entirely on March 20.[22] Australia lifted this ban in November 2021.[23]

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A travel ban can be instituted during an extreme weather event. Local governments can ban driving in an attempt to clear major roadways, as was the case during the Late December 2022 North American winter storm.[24] In some cases they may be enforced by military police.[25]

Litigation

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Many controversies have sprung up about whether governments have the right to do so. In the United States, a lawsuit challenged Executive Order 13769 that banned travel from seven Muslim-majority nations.

List of travel bans

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Current

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Former

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  • United States embargo against Cuba, travel, commercial, economic, and financial embargoes imposed by the United States on Cuba. Travel was banned from 1963 to 1977.[10]
  • Entry into Bhutan by foreigners was prohibited until the 1970s unless granted permission by the country's royal family.[29]
  • United States travel ban on Vietnam (1975–1991), Americans could travel to Vietnam but not directly as they had to transit through another country.[30]
  • United States travel ban on Libya (1981–2004), created after the Gulf of Sidra incident lasting until 2004 when Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi denounced terrorism and weapons of mass destruction.[10]
  • United States travel ban on Iraq (1991–2003), lasted until Saddam Hussein was overthrown during the Iraq War.[31]
  • Australian COVID-19 travel ban (2020–2021), prohibited Australians from travelling abroad almost entirely with a few exceptions and closed its borders off to non-residents because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Australia's travel restrictions during the pandemic were considered to be the toughest in the world.[23][22]
  • California state-funded travel ban (2016–2023)[32]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Hall, Colin Michael; Lew, Alan A.; Williams, Allan M. (2024). The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Tourism. Wiley. p. 82. ISBN 978-1-119-75374-2 – via Google Books.
  2. ^ Wilk, Gavin (2021). "Hasty Departures: The Evacuation of American Citizens from Europe at the Outbreak of World War II". Journal of Transnational American Studies. 12 (1). doi:10.5070/T812139136 – via eScholarship.
  3. ^ Longley, Robert (July 6, 2022). "US Neutrality Acts of the 1930s and the Lend-Lease Act". ThoughtCo. Retrieved April 24, 2024.
  4. ^ Gilbert, Asha C. (February 25, 2022). "Reports: Ukraine bans all male citizens ages 18 to 60 from leaving the country". USA Today. Retrieved April 24, 2024.
  5. ^ Henley, Jon (August 10, 2022). "EU under pressure to ban Russian tourists from Europe". The Guardian. Retrieved April 24, 2024.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g York, Joanna (May 23, 2023). "France 24" (Digital). Retrieved May 1, 2024. The EU has imposed restrictions on Russians travelling to Europe following the invasion of Ukraine, with some countries – notably Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Finland, Poland and the Czech Republic – imposing an outright ban.
  7. ^ Lebovic, Sam (2022). A Righteous Smokescreen: Postwar America and the Politics of Cultural Globalization. University of Chicago Press. p. 148. ISBN 978-0-226-81608-1 – via Google Books.
  8. ^ Wolfe, Audra J. (May 15, 2013). "1955 Map Shows No-Go Zones for Soviet Travelers in the U.S." Slate (Digital). Retrieved April 24, 2024.
  9. ^ a b c d Mak, James; Arita, Shawn; Croix, Sumner La (Spring 2013). "How China's Approved Destination Status Policy Spurs and Hinders Chinese Travel Abroad". Association for Asian Studies. 18 (1).
  10. ^ a b c Lee, Matthew (June 20, 2017). "A look at places US has banned its citizens from visiting". Associated Press (Digital). Retrieved May 1, 2024.
  11. ^ Randal, Jonathan C. (January 3, 1990). "ROMANIA MOVES TO RESTORE RIGHTS OF FREE ASSEMBLY AND TRAVEL". The Washington Post. Retrieved April 24, 2024.
  12. ^ Stavro, Barry (September 23, 1990). "Albania Opens Its Doors". Los Angeles Times (Digital). Retrieved April 24, 2024.
  13. ^ Jae-hee, Choi (June 21, 2023). "[Korean History] 1989: The year Koreans started traveling abroad". The Korea Herald. Retrieved July 14, 2024.
  14. ^ a b Josephs, Leslie (November 7, 2021). "The U.S. is about to lift a nearly 20-month international travel ban. Here's what you need to know". CNBC (Digital). Retrieved July 3, 2024.
  15. ^ Zhong, Lu; Diagne, Mamadou; Wang, Weiping; Gao, Jianxi (June 4, 2021). "Country distancing increase reveals the effectiveness of travel restrictions in stopping COVID-19 transmission". Communications Physics. 4 (121). doi:10.1038/s42005-021-00620-5.
  16. ^ "U.S. Will Impose New Ban On Travel From India As Coronavirus Rages". NPR. Retrieved 2021-05-08.
  17. ^ Hansen, Claire (March 20, 2020). "U.S.-Mexico Border to Close Amid Coronavirus Spread". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved April 24, 2024.
  18. ^ Sheridan, Mary Beth (January 12, 2022). "Mexico has refused to close its borders during the covid-19 pandemic. Does that make sense?". The Washington Post (Digital). Retrieved July 3, 2024.
  19. ^ "International travel controls during the COVID-19 pandemic, Oct 25, 2020". Our World in Data (Interactive map). Retrieved July 3, 2023.
  20. ^ "Do restrictions on travel work against Covid?". BBC (Digital). January 4, 2023. Retrieved July 3, 2024. Australia imposed some of the strictest travel restrictions. From 2020, it closed its borders to non-residents and banned Australians from travelling abroad (with a few exceptions).
  21. ^ Costantino, Valentina; Heslop, David J.; MacIntyre, C. Raina (May 18, 2020). "The effectiveness of full and partial travel bans against COVID-19 spread in Australia for travellers from China during and after the epidemic peak in China". Journal of Travel Medicine. 27 (5): taaa081. doi:10.1093/jtm/taaa081. PMC 7313810. PMID 32453411.
  22. ^ a b Simic, Olivera; Rubenstein, Kim (April 7, 2022). "The challenge of 'COVID-19 free' Australia: international travel restrictions and stranded citizens". The International Journal of Human Rights. 27 (5): 830–843. doi:10.1080/13642987.2022.2058496 – via Taylor & Francis Online.
  23. ^ a b "Australia lifts international travel ban for first time during Covid-19 pandemic". France 24 (Digital). November 27, 2021. Retrieved August 15, 2024.
  24. ^ Reporters, Maki Becker and Stephen T. Watson News Staff. "Thruway, I-290, 400, 219 reopen; driving ban continues in Buffalo". Buffalo News. Retrieved 27 December 2022.
  25. ^ "Military police enforce driving ban in snow-stricken Buffalo". AP NEWS. 27 December 2022. Retrieved 28 December 2022.
  26. ^ Lee, Matthew (August 22, 2023). "State Department renews ban on use of US passports for travel to North Korea". Associated Press. Retrieved July 14, 2024.
  27. ^ "ENTRY REQUIREMENTS FOR FOREIGNERS ENTERING THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC AS TOURISTS". godominicanrepublic.com.
  28. ^ "Norway to block entry for most Russian tourists, Moscow says it will respond". Reuters. May 23, 2024. Retrieved July 13, 2024.
  29. ^ Khamrang, Leishipem (December 2013). "Modernisation, Globalisation and Development in Bhutan: Tourism as a Catalyst". Journal of Management and Public Policy. 5 (2). ProQuest 1511921517. Retrieved October 21, 2024 – via ProQuest.
  30. ^ Reynolds, Christopher (January 31, 1993). "TRAVEL INSIDER : Vietnam's 'Open Door' Not Without Challenges : Tourism: Though most restrictions on U.S. visitors have been lifted, there are still no direct flights and parts of the country lack a well-oiled infrastructure". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved July 14, 2024.
  31. ^ Lee, Matthew (June 20, 2017). "A look at places US has banned its citizens from visiting". Associated Press (Digital). Retrieved August 15, 2024.
  32. ^ Vasilogambros, Matt (October 2, 2023). "In scrapping its LGBTQ-related travel ban, California pivots to 'hearts and minds'". Stateline (Digital). Retrieved May 1, 2024.
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