Soviet dissidents

Soviet dissidents were people who disagreed with certain features of Soviet ideology or with its entirety and who were willing to speak out against them.^[1] The term dissident was used in the Soviet Union (USSR) in the period from the mid-1960s until the Fall of Communism.^[2] It was used to refer to small groups of marginalized intellectuals whose challenges, from modest to radical to the Soviet regime, met protection and encouragement from correspondents,^[3] and typically criminal prosecution or other forms of silencing by the authorities. Following the etymology of the term, a dissident is considered to "sit apart" from the regime.^[4] As dissenters began self-identifying as dissidents, the term came to refer to an individual whose non-conformism was perceived to be for the good of a society.^[5]^[6]^[7] The most influential subset of the dissidents is known as the Soviet human rights movement.

Political opposition in the USSR was barely visible, and apart from rare exceptions, it had little consequence,^[8] primarily because it was instantly crushed with brute force. Instead, an important element of dissident activity in the Soviet Union was informing society (both inside the USSR and in foreign countries) about violation of laws and human rights and organizing in defense of those rights. Over time, the dissident movement created vivid awareness of Soviet Communist abuses.^[9]

Soviet dissidents who criticized the state in most cases faced legal sanctions under the Soviet Criminal Code^[10] and the choice between exile abroad (with revocation of their Soviet citizenship), the mental hospital, or the labor camp.^[11] Anti-Soviet political behavior, in particular, being outspoken in opposition to the authorities, demonstrating for reform, writing books critical of the USSR were defined in some persons as being simultaneously a criminal act (e.g. violation of Articles 70 or 190-1), a symptom (e.g. "delusion of reformism"), and a diagnosis (e.g. "sluggish schizophrenia").^[12]

1950s–1960s

In the 1950s, Soviet dissidents started leaking criticism to the West by sending documents and statements to foreign diplomatic missions in Moscow.^[13] In the 1960s, Soviet dissidents frequently declared that the rights the government of the Soviet Union denied them were universal rights, possessed by everyone regardless of race, religion and nationality.^[14] In August 1969, for instance, the Initiating Group for Defense of Civil Rights in the USSR appealed to the United Nations Committee on Human Rights to defend the human rights being trampled on by Soviet authorities in a number of trials.^[15]

Some of the major milestones of the dissident movement of the 1960s included:

Public readings of poetry at the Mayakovsky Square in downtown Moscow, where some of the underground writings critical of the system were often circulated; some of these public readings were dispersed by the police;
The trial of poet Iosif Brodsky (later known as Joseph Brodsky, the future winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature) who was charged with 'parasitism' for not being officially employed and sentenced in 1963 to internal exile; he gained widespread sympathy and support in dissident and semi-dissident circles, mostly through the notes from his trial compiled by Frida Vigdorova
The trial and sentencing of writers Andrei Sinyavsky and Yuli Daniel who were arrested in 1965 for publishing their co-authored work abroad under pennames and sentenced to labor camp and internal exile; opposition to this trial led to a campaign of petitions for their release that was signed by thousands of people, many of whom went on to participate more actively in the dissident movement
Silent demonstrations on Moscow's Pushkin Square initiated by Alexander Yesenin-Volpin on the Soviet Constitution Day of Dec. 5, 1965, with posters urging the authorities to observe their own Constitution
Petitioning campaigns against the downplaying of Stalin's terror after the removal of Nikita Khrushchev and the resurgence of the cult of Stalin's personality in parts of the Soviet government bureaucracy
The launch, in April 1968, of the underground periodical, 'Chronicle of Current Events', documenting violations of human rights and protest activities across the Soviet Union
The publication in the West of Andrei Sakharov's first political essay 'Reflections on Progress and Intellectual Freedom' in the spring and summer of 1968
The rally of protest against the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia to suppress 'the Prague Spring'; was held on August 25, 1968, on Moscow's Red Square by eight dissidents including Viktor Fainberg, Natalya Gorbanevskaya, Pavel Litvinov, Vladimir Dremlyuga, and others
The founding of the Initiative on Human Rights in 1969

1970s

Our history shows that most of the people can be fooled for a very long time. But now all this idiocy is coming into clear contradiction with the fact that we have some level of openness. (Vladimir Voinovich)^[16]

The heyday of the dissenters as a presence in the Western public life was the 1970s.^[17] The Helsinki Accords inspired dissidents in the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland to openly protest human rights failures by their own governments.^[18] The Soviet dissidents demanded that the Soviet authorities implement their own commitments proceeding from the Helsinki Agreement with the same zeal and in the same way as formerly the outspoken legalists expected the Soviet authorities to adhere strictly to the letter of their constitution.^[19] Dissident Russian and East European intellectuals who urged compliance with the Helsinki accords have been subjected to official repression.^[20] According to Soviet dissident Leonid Plyushch, Moscow has taken advantage of the Helsinki security pact to improve its economy while increasing the suppression of political dissenters.^[21] 50 members of Soviet Helsinki Groups were imprisoned.^[22] Cases of political prisoners and prisoners of conscience in the Soviet Union were divulged by Amnesty International in 1975^[23] and by The Committee for the Defense of Soviet Political Prisoners in 1975^[24] and 1976.^[25]^[26]

US President Jimmy Carter in his inaugural address on 20 January 1977 announced that human rights would be central to foreign policy during his administration.^[27] In February, Carter sent Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov a letter expressing his support for the latter's stance on human rights.^[27]^[28] In the wake of Carter's letter to Sakharov, the USSR cautioned against attempts "to interfere' in its affairs under "a thought-up pretext of 'defending human rights.'"^[29] Because of Carter's open show of support for Soviet dissidents, the KGB was able to link dissent with American imperialism through suggesting that such protest is a cover for American espionage in the Soviet Union.^[30] The KGB head Yuri Andropov determined, "The need has thus emerged to terminate the actions of Orlov, fellow Helsinki monitor Ginzburg and others once and for all, on the basis of existing law."^[31] According to Dmitri Volkogonov and Harold Shukman, it was Andropov who approved the numerous trials of human rights activists such as Andrei Amalrik, Vladimir Bukovsky, Vyacheslav Chornovil, Zviad Gamsakhurdia, Alexander Ginzburg, Natalya Gorbanevskaya, Pyotr Grigorenko, Anatoly Shcharansky, and others:^[32]

If we accept human rights violations as just "their way" of doing things, then we are all guilty. (Andrei Sakharov)^[33]

Voluntary and involuntary emigration allowed the authorities to rid themselves of many political active intellectuals including writers Valentin Turchin, Georgi Vladimov, Vladimir Voinovich, Lev Kopelev, Vladimir Maximov, Naum Korzhavin, Vasily Aksyonov, psychiatrist Marina Voikhanskaya and others.^[34]^: 194^[35] A Chronicle of Current Events covered 424 political trials, in which 753 people were convicted, and no one of the accused was acquitted; in addition, 164 people were declared insane and sent to compulsory treatment in a psychiatric hospital.^[36]

According to Soviet dissidents and Western critics, the KGB had routinely sent dissenters to psychiatrists for diagnosing to avoid embarrassing public trials and to discredit dissidence as the product of ill minds.^[37]^[38] On the grounds that political dissenters in the Soviet Union were psychotic and deluded, they were locked away in psychiatric hospitals and treated with neuroleptics.^[39] Confinement of political dissenters in psychiatric institutions had become a common practice.^[40] That technique could be called the "medicalization" of dissidence or psychiatric terror, the now familiar form of repression applied in the Soviet Union to Leonid Plyushch, Pyotr Grigorenko, and many others.^[41] Finally, many persons at that time tended to believe that dissidents were abnormal people whose commitment to mental hospitals was quite justified.^[34]^: 96^[42] In the opinion of the Moscow Helsinki Group chairwoman Lyudmila Alexeyeva, the attribution of a mental illness to a prominent figure who came out with a political declaration or action is the most significant factor in the assessment of psychiatry during the 1960–1980s.^[43] At that time Soviet dissident Vladimir Bukovsky wrote A New Mental Illness in the USSR: The Opposition published in French,^[44] German,^[45] Italian,^[46] Spanish^[47] and (coauthored with Semyon Gluzman) A Manual on Psychiatry for Dissidents published in Russian,^[48] English,^[49] French,^[50] Italian,^[51] German,^[52] Danish.^[53]

Repression of the Helsinki Watch Groups

In 1977–1979 and again in 1980–1982, the KGB reacted to the Helsinki Watch Groups in Moscow, Kiev, Vilnius, Tbilisi, and Erevan by launching large-scale arrests and sentencing its members to in prison, labor camp, internal exile and psychiatric imprisonment.

From the members of the Moscow Helsinki Group, 1978 saw its members Yuri Orlov, Vladimir Slepak and Anatoly Shcharansky sentenced to lengthy labor camp terms and internal exile for "anti-Soviet agitation and propaganda" and treason. Another wave of arrests followed in the early 1980s: Malva Landa, Viktor Nekipelov, Leonard Ternovsky, Feliks Serebrov, Tatiana Osipova, Anatoly Marchenko, and Ivan Kovalev.^[54]^: 249 Soviet authorities offered some activists the "opportunity" to emigrate. Lyudmila Alexeyeva emigrated in 1977. The Moscow Helsinki Group founding members Mikhail Bernshtam, Alexander Korchak, Vitaly Rubin also emigrated, and Pyotr Grigorenko was stripped of his Soviet citizenship while seeking medical treatment abroad.^[55]

The Ukrainian Helsinki Group suffered severe repressions throughout 1977–1982, with at times multiple labor camp sentences handed out to Mykola Rudenko, Oleksy Tykhy, Myroslav Marynovych, Mykola Matusevych, Levko Lukyanenko, Oles Berdnyk, Mykola Horbal, Zinovy Krasivsky, Vitaly Kalynychenko, Vyacheslav Chornovil, Olha Heyko, Vasyl Stus, Oksana Meshko, Ivan Sokulsky, Ivan Kandyba, Petro Rozumny, Vasyl Striltsiv, Yaroslav Lesiv, Vasyl Sichko, Yuri Lytvyn, Petro Sichko.^[54]^{: 250–251} By 1983 the Ukrainian Helsinki Group had 37 members, of whom 22 were in prison camps, 5 were in exile, 6 emigrated to the West, 3 were released and were living in Ukraine, 1 (Mykhailo Melnyk) committed suicide.^[56]

The Lithuanian Helsinki Group saw its members subjected to two waves of imprisonment for anti-Soviet activities and "organization of religious processions": Viktoras Petkus was sentenced in 1978; others followed in 1980–1981: Algirdas Statkevičius, Vytautas Skuodys, Mečislovas Jurevičius, and Vytautas Vaičiūnas.^[54]^{: 251–252}

Currents of dissidence

Civil and human rights movement

Yelena Bonner and Andrei Sakharov after their arrival for the conferment of the honorary doctorate in law from the University of Groningen, 15 June 1989

Starting in the 1960s, the early years of the Brezhnev stagnation, dissidents in the Soviet Union increasingly turned their attention towards civil and eventually human rights concerns. The fight for civil and human rights focused on issues of freedom of expression, freedom of conscience, freedom to emigrate, punitive psychiatry, and the plight of political prisoners. It was characterized by a new openness of dissent, a concern for legality, the rejection of any 'underground' and violent struggle.^[57]

Throughout the 1960s-1980s, those active in the civil and human rights movement engaged in a variety of activities: The documentation of political repression and rights violations in samizdat (unsanctioned press); individual and collective protest letters and petitions; unsanctioned demonstrations; mutual aid for prisoners of conscience; and, most prominently, civic watch groups appealing to the international community. Repercussions for these activities ranged from dismissal from work and studies to many years of imprisonment in labor camps and being subjected to punitive psychiatry.

Dissidents active in the movement in the 1960s introduced a "legalist" approach of avoiding moral and political commentary in favor of close attention to legal and procedural issues. Following several landmark political trials, coverage of arrests and trials in samizdat became more common. This activity eventually led to the founding of the Chronicle of Current Events in April 1968. The unofficial newsletter reported violations of civil rights and judicial procedure by the Soviet government and responses to those violations by citizens across the USSR.^[58]

During the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s, the rights-based strategy of dissent incorporated human rights ideas and rhetoric. The movement included figures such as Valery Chalidze, Yuri Orlov, and Lyudmila Alexeyeva. Special groups were founded such as the Initiative Group for the Defense of Human Rights in the USSR (1969) and the Committee on Human Rights in the USSR (1970). The signing of the Helsinki Accords (1975) containing human rights clauses provided rights campaigners with a new hope to use international instruments. This led to the creation of dedicated Helsinki Watch Groups in Moscow (Moscow Helsinki Group), Kiev (Ukrainian Helsinki Group), Vilnius (Lithuanian Helsinki Group), Tbilisi, and Erevan (1976–77).^[59]^{: 159–194}

The civil and human rights initiatives played a significant role in providing a common language for Soviet dissidents with varying concerns, and became a common cause for social groups in the dissident milieu ranging from activists in the youth subculture to academics such as Andrei Sakharov. Due to the contacts with Western journalists as well as the political focus during détente (Helsinki Accords), those active in the human rights movement were among those most visible in the West (next to refuseniks).

Movements of deported nations

In 1944 THE WHOLE OF OUR PEOPLE was slanderously accused of betraying the Soviet Мotherland and was forcibly deported from the Crimea. [...] [O]n 5 September 1967, there appeared a Decree of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet which cleared us of the charge of treason but described us not as Crimean Tatars but as "citizens of Tatar nationality formerly resident in the Crimea", thus legitimizing our banishment from our home country and liquidating us as a nation.
We did not grasp the significance of the decree immediately. After it was published, several thousand people traveled to the Crimea but were once again forcibly expelled. The protest which our people sent to the party Central Committee was left unanswered, as were also the protests of representatives of the Soviet public who supported us. The authorities replied to us only with persecution and court cases.
Since 1959 more than two hundred of the most active and courageous representatives have been sentenced to terms of up to seven years although they had always acted within the limits of the Soviet Constitution.

– Appeal by Crimean Tatars to World Public Opinion, Chronicle of Current Events Issue No 2 (30 June 1968)^[60]

Several national or ethnic groups who had been deported under Stalin formed movements to return to their homelands. In particular, the Crimean Tatars aimed to return to Crimea, the Meskhetian Turks to South Georgia and ethnic Germans aimed to resettle along the Volga River near Saratov.

The Crimean Tatar movement takes a prominent place among the movement of deported nations. The Tatars had been refused the right to return to the Crimea, even though the laws justifying their deportation had been overturned. Their first collective letter calling for the restoration dates to 1957.^[61] In the early 1960s, the Crimean Tatars had begun to establish initiative groups in the places where they had been forcibly resettled. Led by Mustafa Dzhemilev, they founded their own democratic and decentralized organization, considered unique in the history of independent movements in the Soviet Union.^[62]^: 131^[63]^: 7

Emigration movements

The emigration movements in the Soviet Union included the movement of Soviet Jews to emigrate to Israel and of the Volga Germans to emigrate to West Germany.

Soviet Jews were routinely denied permission to emigrate by the authorities of the former Soviet Union and other countries of the Eastern bloc.^[64] A movement for the right to emigrate formed in the 1960s, which also gave rise to a revival of interest in Jewish culture. The refusenik cause gathered considerable attention in the West.

Citizens of German origin who lived in the Baltic states prior to their annexation in 1940 and descendants of the eighteenth-century Volga German settlers also formed a movement to leave the Soviet Union.^[62]^: 132^[65]^: 67 In 1972, the West German government entered an agreement with the Soviet authorities which permitted between 6,000 and 8,000 people to emigrate to West Germany every year for the rest of the decade. As a result, almost 70,000 ethnic Germans had left the Soviet Union by the mid-1980s.^[65]^: 67

Similarly, Armenians achieved a small emigration. By the mid-1980s, over 15,000 Armenians had emigrated.^[65]^: 68

Russia has changed in the recent years largely in the social, economic, and political spheres. Migrations from Russian have become less forceful and primarily a result of free will that is expressed by the individual.^[66]

Religious movements

The religious movements in the USSR included Russian Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant movements. They focused on the freedom to practice their faith and resistance to interference by the state in their internal affairs.^[63]^: 8

The Russian Orthodox movement remained relatively small. The Catholic movement in Lithuania was part of the larger Lithuanian national movement. Protestant groups which opposed the anti-religious state directives included the Baptists, the Seventh-day Adventists, and the Pentecostals. Similar to the Jewish and German dissident movements, many in the independent Pentecostal movement pursued emigration.

National movements

The national movements included the Russian national dissidents as well as dissident movements from Ukraine, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Georgia, and Armenia.

Among the nations that lived in their own territories with the status of republics within the Soviet Union, the first movement to emerge in the 1960s was the Ukrainian movement. Its aspiration was to resist the Russification of Ukraine and to insist on equal rights and democratization for the republic.^[63]^: 7

In Lithuania, the national movement of the 1970s was closely linked to the Catholic movement.^[63]^: 7

Literary and cultural

Several landmark examples of dissenting writers played a significant role for the wider dissident movement. These include the persecutions of Osip Mandelshtam, Boris Pasternak, Mikhail Bulgakov, and Joseph Brodsky, as well as the publication of The Gulag Archipelago by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn.

In literary world, there were dozens of literati who participated in dissident movement, including Vasily Aksyonov, Yury Aikhenvald, Arkadiy Belinkov, Leonid Borodin, Joseph Brodsky, Yuli Daniel, David Dar, Aleksandr Galich, Anatoly Gladilin, Yuliy Kim, Lev Kopelev, Naum Korzhavin, Konstantin Kuzminsky, Vladimir Maksimov, Viktor Nekrasov, Varlam Shalamov, Andrei Sinyavsky, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Kari Unksova, Georgi Vladimov, Vladimir Voinovich, Venedikt Yerofeyev, and Alexander Zinoviev.^[67]^[68]

In the early Soviet Union, non-conforming academics were exiled via so-called Philosophers' ships.^[69] Later, figures such as cultural theorist Grigori Pomerants were among active dissidents.^[63]^: 327

Other intersections of cultural and literary nonconformism with dissidents include the underground poetry^[68]^[70] and the wide field of Soviet Nonconformist Art, such as the painters of the underground Lianozovo group, and artists active in the "Second Culture".^[71]

Other groups

Other groups included the Socialists, the movements for socioeconomic rights (especially the independent unions), as well as women's, environmental, and peace movements.^[62]^: 132^[63]^: 3–18

Dissidents and the Cold War

In 1977, Jimmy Carter received prominent dissident Vladimir Bukovsky at the White House.

Responding to the issue of refuseniks in the Soviet Union, the United States Congress passed the Jackson–Vanik amendment in 1974. The provision in United States federal law intended to affect U.S. trade relations with countries of the Communist bloc that restrict freedom of emigration and other human rights.

The eight member countries of the Warsaw Pact signed the Helsinki Final Act in August 1975. The "third basket" of the Act included extensive human rights clauses.^[72]^: 99–100

When Jimmy Carter entered office in 1976, he broadened his advisory circle to include critics of US–Soviet détente. He voiced support for the Czech dissident movement known as Charter 77, and publicly expressed concern about the Soviet treatment of dissidents Aleksandr Ginzburg and Andrei Sakharov. In 1977, Carter received prominent dissident Vladimir Bukovsky in the White House, asserting that he did not intend "to be timid" in his support of human rights.^[73]^: 73

In 1979, the US Helsinki Watch Committee was established, funded by the Ford Foundation. Founded after the example of the Moscow Helsinki Group and similar watch groups in the Soviet bloc, it also aimed to monitor compliance with the human rights provisions of the Helsinki Accords and to provide moral support for those struggling for that objective inside the Soviet bloc. It acted as a conduit for information on repression in the Soviet Union, and lobbied policy-makers in the United States to continue to press the issue with Soviet leaders.^[74]^: 460

In 1988, Ronald Reagan held a meeting with Andrei Sakharov at the White House

US President Ronald Reagan attributed to the view that the "brutal treatment of Soviet dissidents was due to bureaucratic inertia."^[75] On 14 November 1988, he held a meeting with Andrei Sakharov at the White House and said that Soviet human rights abuses are impeding progress and would continue to do so until the problem is "completely eliminated."^[76] Whether talking to about one hundred dissidents in a broadcast to the Soviet people or at the U.S. Embassy, Reagan's agenda was one of freedom to travel, freedom of speech and freedom of religion.^[77]

Dissidents about their dissent

Andrei Sakharov said, "Everyone wants to have a job, be married, have children, be happy, but dissidents must be prepared to see their lives destroyed and those dear to them hurt. When I look at my situation and my family's situation and that of my country, I realize that things are getting steadily worse."^[78] Fellow dissident and one of the founders of the Moscow Helsinki Group Lyudmila Alexeyeva wrote:

What would happen if citizens acted on the assumption that they have rights? If one person did it, he would become a martyr; if two people did it, they would be labeled an enemy organization; if thousands of people did it, the state would have to become less oppressive.^[63]^: 275

According to Soviet dissident Victor Davydoff, totalitarian systems lack mechanisms to change the behavior of the ruling group internally.^[79] Attempts from within are suppressed through repression, necessitating international human rights organizations and foreign governments to exert external pressure for change.^[79]

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Rich, Vera (30 September 1976). "Soviet dissidents: he who would dissident be". Nature. 263 (5576): 361–362. Bibcode:1976Natur.263..361R. doi:10.1038/263361a0. S2CID 4169615.
Rich, Vera (9 December 1976). "USSR: bottling up dissent. Reports on recent developments concerning dissidents in the USSR and Eastern Europe". Nature. 264 (5586): 501–502. Bibcode:1976Natur.264..501R. doi:10.1038/264501a0. S2CID 40739064.
Rich, Vera (8 September 1977). "USSR: discrediting the dissidents". Nature. 269 (5624): 100. Bibcode:1977Natur.269..100R. doi:10.1038/269100a0. S2CID 4249431.
Rich, Vera (24 November 1977). "Leading Soviet dissidents in London". Nature. 270 (5635): 290. Bibcode:1977Natur.270R.290R. doi:10.1038/270290b0. S2CID 41091196.
Rich, Vera (15 December 1977). "Stalin's scientific deputy addresses dissident meeting". Nature. 270 (5638): 550. Bibcode:1977Natur.270..550R. doi:10.1038/270550a0. S2CID 36455000.
Rich, Vera (17 May 1979). "Soviet dissident charged". Nature. 279 (5710): 178. Bibcode:1979Natur.279..178R. doi:10.1038/279178b0. S2CID 4282922.
Rich, Vera (11 February 1982). "Soviet dissidents: helpers divided". Nature. 295 (5849): 450. Bibcode:1982Natur.295R.450R. doi:10.1038/295450c0. S2CID 41822324.
Rich, Vera (16 January 1986). "Refusnik scientists: dissenting dissidents agree". Nature. 319 (6050): 169. Bibcode:1986Natur.319..169R. doi:10.1038/319169b0. S2CID 4260729.
Richter, Derek (August 1971). "Political dissenters in mental hospitals". The British Journal of Psychiatry. 119 (549): 225–226. doi:10.1192/bjp.119.549.225. S2CID 145461136.
Rinzler, Michael (Spring 1994). "Battling authoritarianism through treaty: Soviet dissent and international human rights regimes". Harvard International Law Journal. 35 (2): 461–498.
Ripa di Meana, Carlo; Mecucci, Gabriella (2007). L'ordine di Mosca: fermate la biennale del dissenso [The order of Moscow: to stop the biennial of dissent] (in Italian). Rome: Liberal. ISBN 978-8888835372.
Robert, Horvath (October 2015). ""Sakharov would be with us": Limonov, Strategy-31, and the dissident legacy". The Russian Review. 74 (4): 581–598. doi:10.1111/russ.12049.
Roberts, Steven (19 March 1963). "The politics of dissent: turmoil in Soviet literature". The Harvard Crimson.
Robinson, Harlow (3 December 1980). "Soviet dissent seen form outside and from inside the USSR; On Soviet Dissent: Interviews with Piero Ostellino, by Roy Medvedev". The Christian Science Monitor.
Robinson, Paul (21 January 1989). "Psychiatric imprisonment of Soviet dissidents". British Medical Journal. 298 (6667): 195. doi:10.1136/bmj.298.6667.195. JSTOR 29703310. S2CID 220170478.
Ronza, R (1970). Samizdat: dissenso e contestazione nell'Unione Sovietica [Samizdat: dissent and protest in the Soviet Union] (in Italian). Milan: IPL. ISBN 978-8878362031.
Rothberg, Abraham (1972). The heirs of Stalin: dissidence and the Soviet regime, 1953–1970. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-0667-6.
Rubenstein, Joshua (1 September 1978). "The enduring voice of the Soviet dissidents". Columbia Journalism Review. 17 (3): 32–39.
Rubenstein, Joshua (1980). Soviet dissidents: their struggle for human rights. Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-3213-8.
Rudnytsky, Ivan (Fall 1981). "The Political Thought of Soviet Ukrainian Dissidents". Journal of Ukrainian Studies. 6 (2): 3.
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Rutman, Roman (January 1973). "Jews and dissenters: connections and divergences". Soviet Jewish Affairs. 3 (2): 26–37. doi:10.1080/13501677308577163.
Rywkin, Michael (March 1981). "Dissent in Soviet Central Asia". Nationalities Papers: The Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity. 9 (1): 27–34. doi:10.1080/00905998108407900. S2CID 153757604.
Salter, Leonard (Fall 1978). "American lawyers and Russian dissidents: the lawyer as social engineer". The International Lawyer. 12 (12): 869–875. JSTOR 40706698.
Samatan, Marie (1980). Droits de l'homme et répression en URSS: l'appareil et les victimes [Human rights and repression in the USSR: mechanism and victims] (in French). Paris: Seuil. ISBN 978-2020057059.
Satter, David (12 February 1987). "A test case". The New York Review of Books. 34 (2).
Satter, David (30 April 2003). "Soviet dissent and the Cold War". Hoover Digest (2).
Saunders, George (1974). Samizdat: voices of the Soviet opposition. Pathfinder Press. ISBN 978-0-87348-914-0.
Savranskaya, Svetlana (2009). "Human rights movement in the USSR after the signing of the Helsinki Final Act, and the reaction of Soviet authorities". In Nuti, Leopoldo (ed.). The crisis of détente in Europe: from Helsinki to Gorbachev, 1975–1985. London, New York: Routledge. pp. 26–40. ISBN 978-1-134-04498-6.
Schweitzer, Glenn (2013) [1989]. "Refuseniks, dissidents, and scientific exchanges". Techno-diplomacy: US-Soviet confrontations in science and technology (2 ed.). Springer. pp. 230–252. ISBN 978-1-4899-6046-7.
Seleznev, Viktor (2009). Кто выбирает свободу. Саратов: Хроника инакомыслия. 1920–1980-е годы [Who chooses freedom. Saratov: Chronicle of dissent. The 1920s–1980s] (PDF) (in Russian). Saratov.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Serebryakova, Elena (2012). Мир глазами диссидента (по книге В. Буковского "И возвращается ветер…") [World through the eyes of a dissident (about the book of V. Bukovsky «The wind returns…»)] (PDF). Управленческое консультирование (in Russian) (4): 132–138. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2016.
Shanker, Thom (25 December 1986). "Free political dissidents, Sakharov tells Gorbachev". The Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on 24 February 2016. Retrieved 17 February 2016.
Shanker, Thom; Moseley, Ray (31 May 1988). "Reagan keeps focus on rights. President holds talks with Soviet dissidents". The Chicago Tribune.
Sharlet, Robert (Autumn 1978). "Dissent and repression in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe: changing patterns since Khrushchev". International Journal. 33 (4): 763–795. doi:10.2307/40201689. JSTOR 40201689.
Sharlet, Robert (1 October 1980). "Growing Soviet dissidence". Current History. 79 (459): 96–100. doi:10.1525/curh.1980.79.459.96. S2CID 249073839.
Sharlet, Robert (1984). "Dissent and the "Contra-System" in the Soviet Union". Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science. 35 (3): 135–146. doi:10.2307/1174123. JSTOR 1174123.
Sharlet, Robert (October 1986). "Soviet dissent since Brezhnev". Current History. 85 (513): 321–324, 340. doi:10.1525/curh.1986.85.513.321. S2CID 251522055.
Shatz, Marshall (1980). Soviet dissent in historical perspective. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-23172-5.
Shlapentokh, Dmitry (August 2005). "President Bush, Shcharansky and the tradition of Russian dissent". Contemporary Review. 287 (1675): 71–81.
Shirokorad, Alexander (2014). Диссиденты 1956–1990 гг. [Dissidents of 1956–1990] (in Russian). Moscow: Алгоритм. ISBN 978-5443807324.
Siegel, George (Spring 1964). "Voices in dissonance". The Slavic and East European Journal. 8 (1): 66–71. doi:10.2307/303978. JSTOR 303978.
Simirenko, Alex (November 1975). "A new type of Soviet resistance?". Society. 13 (1): 35–37. doi:10.1007/BF02699992. S2CID 144092795.
Simon, Gerhard (1974). Church, state, and opposition in the U.S.S.R. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-02612-4.
Sinatti, Piero (1974). Il dissenso in URSS [Dissent in the USSR] (in Italian). Rome: La nuova sinistra; Savelli.
Sinatti, Piero (1978). Il dissenso in Urss nell'epoca di Breznev: antologia della Cronaca degli avvenimenti correnti (documenti e interventi) [Dissent in the USSR in the era of Brezhnev: anthology of A Chronicle of Current Events (documents and interviews)] (in Italian). Firenze: Vallecchi.
Smith, Fred (Winter 1991). "Sakharov and Solzhenitsyn: dissidents with a different world view". The Journal of Social, Political, and Economic Studies. 16 (4): 469–476.
Smith, Gordon (1988). "Dissent: Political, Ethnic, and Religious". Soviet Politics. Macmillan Education. pp. 294–320. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-19172-7_13. ISBN 978-0-333-45919-5.
Solovyov, Vladimir; Klepikova, Elena (17 August 1987). "The Kremlin and dissidents: time for compromise". Chicago Tribune.
Spechler, Dina (1982). Permitted dissent in the USSR: Novy mir and the Soviet regime. New York: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-03-060621-2.
Spechler, Dina (1982). "Permitted dissent and Soviet politics: the case of Novyi Mir". The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review. 9 (1): 1–39. doi:10.1163/187633282X00028.
Spiegel, Philip (2008). Triumph over tyranny: the heroic campaigns that saved 2,000,000 Soviet Jews. Devora Publishing. ISBN 978-1-61584-938-3.
Sun, Marjorie (8 October 1982). "Soviets clamp down on dissident groups". Science. 218 (4568): 139. Bibcode:1982Sci...218..139S. doi:10.1126/science.218.4568.139. PMID 17753431.
Surovtseva, Ekaterina (2014). А.И. Солженицын и А.Д. Сахаров: дискуссия вокруг "Письма вождям Советского Союза" и её восприятие в эмигрантской печати (М. Агурский) [A.I. Solzhenitsyn and A.D. Sakharov: the debate around "Letter to the Soviet leaders" and its perception in the emigre press (M. Agursky)] (PDF). Филологические науки. Вопросы теории и практики (in Russian). 9 (39, part 2): 159–161. Archived from the original (PDF, immediate download) on 6 March 2016.
Surovtseva, Ekaterina (2015). А.И. Солженицын, А.Д. Сахаров и Р. Медведев: дискуссия вокруг "Письма вождям Советского Союза" и её восприятие в эмигрантской печати (М. Агурский) [A.I. Solzhenitsyn, A.D. Sakharov and R. Medvedev: the debate around "Letter to the Soviet leaders" and its perception in the emigre press (M. Agursky)]. Молодой ученый (in Russian) (2): 608–613. Archived from the original on 19 April 2015.
Surrett, William (1987). Formalization and contemporary patterns and conditions of modern Soviet dissidence.
Suslensky, Yakov (September 1983). "The treatment of activities of Russian and non-Russian dissidents by the Soviet regime: a comparative analysis". Nationalities Papers: The Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity. 11 (2): 232–243. doi:10.1080/00905998308407969. S2CID 177888152.
Sweeting, Stephen (Spring 2010). "Postmodern strategies of resistance: Solzhenitsyn and Havel". Journal of Integrated Studies. 1 (1): 1–10.
Szulc, Tad (Summer 1978). "Living with dissent". Foreign Policy (31): 180–191. doi:10.2307/1148152. JSTOR 1148152.
Tarnawsky, Ostap (Fall 1981). "Dissident poets in Ukraine". Journal of Ukrainian Studies. 6 (2): 17–27.
Tarnow, Alexander von (1976). La Russia del dissenso [Russia of dissent] (in Italian). Rome: Ciarrapico. ASIN B00RW46CO0.
Tikos, Laszlo (June 1973). "Dissent among non-Russian writers of the U.S.S.R. — A philologist's analysis". Nationalities Papers: The Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity. 1 (2): 10–16. doi:10.1080/00905997308407741. S2CID 159519955.
Tökés, Rudolf (1975). Dissent in the USSR: politics, ideology, and people. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-1661-1.
Tonge, William (20 July 1974). "Psychiatry and political dissent". The Lancet. 304 (7873): 150–152. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(74)91569-4. PMID 4135437.
Tria, Massimo (2011). "L'invasione vista dai sovietici, fra approvazione e dissenso" [The imaginative invasion of the Soviets, from approval to dissent]. In Caccamo, Francesco; Helan, Pavel; Tria, Massimo (eds.). Primavera di Praga, risveglio europeo [Prague Spring, European awakening] (in Italian). Firenze University Press. pp. 97–126. ISBN 978-8864532691.
Trigos, Ludmilla (2009). "The decembrists and dissidence: myth and anti-myth from the 1960s–1980s". The decembrist myth in Russian culture. Macmillan. pp. 141–160. doi:10.1057/9780230104716_7. ISBN 978-0-230-61916-6.
Ulam, Adam (1981). Russia's failed revolutions: from the decembrists to the dissidents. Littlehampton Book Services. ISBN 978-0-297-77940-7.
Vaissié, Cécile (1999). Pour votre liberté et pour la nôtre: le combat des dissidents de Russie [For your and our freedom: the struggle of Russian dissidents] (in French). Laffont. ISBN 978-2221090473.
Vaissié, Cécile (July–September 1999). ""La Chronique des évenements en cours". Une revue de la dissidence dans l'URSS brejnévienne" [A Chronicle of Current Events. A review of dissidence in the Brezhnev USSR]. Vingtième Siècle. Revue d'Histoire (in French) (63): 107–118. doi:10.2307/3770704. JSTOR 3770704.
Vaissié, Cécile (2000). Russie, une femme en dissidence : Larissa Bogoraz [Russia, a woman in dissent: Larisa Bogoraz] (in French). Plon. ISBN 978-2259191555.
Vaissié, Cécile (2011). "Le combat des dissidents de Russie en Occident" [The struggle of Russian dissidents in the West]. In Falkowski, Wojciech; Marès, Antoine (eds.). Les intellectuels en exil face aux régimes totalitaires [Intellectuals in exile deal with totalitarian regimes] (in French). Paris: Institut d'études slaves. pp. 143–155.
Vaissié, Cécile (2014). "Archiver les samizdats de la dissidence russe" [Archive of samizdat by the Russian dissent]. Écrire l'Histoire (in French) (13–14): 129–135. doi:10.4000/elh.487.
Vaissié, Cécile (2014). "'Black robe, golden epaulettes': from the Russian dissidents to Pussy Riot". Religion and Gender. 4 (2): 166–183. doi:10.18352/rg.9255. S2CID 146720743.
Vardys, Stanley (September 1982). "The nature and philosophy of Baltic dissent: a comparative perspective". Nationalities Papers: The Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity. 10 (2): 121–136. doi:10.1080/00905998208407936. S2CID 145423676.
Vigdorova, Frida; Katz, Michael (2014). "The trial of Joseph Brodsky". New England Review. 34 (3–4): 183–207. doi:10.1353/ner.2014.0022. S2CID 153474011.
Voren, Robert van (2009). On dissidents and madness: from the Soviet Union of Leonid Brezhnev to the "Soviet Union" of Vladimir Putin. Amsterdam—New York: Rodopi Publishers. ISBN 978-90-420-2585-1.
Walsh, John (6 April 1973). "Soviet-American science accord: could dissent deter detente?". Science. 180 (4081): 40–43. Bibcode:1973Sci...180...40W. doi:10.1126/science.180.4081.40. JSTOR 1735290. PMID 17757967.
Weeks, Albert (1975). Andrei Sakharov and the Soviet dissidents: a critical commentary. Monarch Press. ISBN 978-0-671-00963-2.
Westrate, Mike (2012). "The self against the state: Valery Abramkin and the destruction of dissident identity" (PDF). Acta Slavica Iaponica. 31: 105‒121. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 February 2016.
White, Sarah (25 June 1981). "New crackdown on Russian dissidents and refusniks". New Scientist. 90 (1259): 816.
White, Sarah (11 February 1982). "Science keeps the dissidents hoping". New Scientist. 93 (1292): 359.
Wilke, Manfred (2007). "Solschenizyn und der Westen" [Solzhenitsyn and the West]. In Veen, Hans-Joachim; Mählert, Ulrich; März, Peter (eds.). Wechselwirkungen Ost-West: Dissidenz, Opposition und Zivilgesellschaft 1975–1989 [East-West interactions: dissidence, opposition and civil society 1975–1989] (in German). Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar. pp. 149–172. ISBN 978-3-412-23306-8.
Willis, David (15 January 1981). "Currents of nationalism, dissent beneath crust of communist conformity". The Christian Science Monitor.
Windholz, George (November 1985). "Psychiatric commitments of religious dissenters in Tsarist and Soviet Russia: two case studies". Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes. 48 (4): 329–340. doi:10.1080/00332747.1985.11024294. PMID 3906732.
Woll, Josephine; Treml, Vladimir (1983). Soviet dissident literature: a critical guide. G.K. Hall. ISBN 978-0-8161-8626-6.
Woychyshyn, Nestor (1986). Soviet Ukrainian political dissidents in the West: their politics, interaction, and impact after exile to the West, 1965–1983 (M.A.). Ottawa, Canada: Carleton University. doi:10.22215/etd/1986-01175.
Wynn, Allan (1987). Notes of a non-conspirator: working with Russian dissidents. London: Andre Deutsch. ISBN 978-0-233-98149-9.
Wynn, Allan; Dewhirst, Martin; Stone, Harold (1986). Fifth International Sakharov Hearing: Proceedings, April, 1985. Andre Deutsch. ISBN 978-0-233-98050-8.
Wyszomirskia, Margaret; Oleszczukb, Thomas; Smith, Theresa (March 1988). "Cultural dissent and defection: the case of Soviet nonconformist artists". Journal of Arts Management and Law. 18 (1): 44–62. doi:10.1080/07335113.1988.9942181.
Yakobson, Sergius; Allen, Robert (1968). Aspects of intellectual ferment and dissent in the Soviet Union prepared at the request of Senator Thomas J. Dodd for the Subcommittee to investigate the administration of the Internal Security Act and other internal security laws of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Publishing Office. OCLC 3330.
Yeo, Clayton (June 1975). "Psychiatry, the law and dissent in the Soviet Union". Review of the International Commission of Jurists (14): 34–41. PMID 11662196.
Zanchetta, Barbara (February 2012). "L'appuntamento mancato: la sinistra italiana e il dissenso nei regimi comunisti (1968–1989)" [The missed appointment: the Italian left and the dissent in the communist regimes (1968–1989)]. Cold War History (in Italian). 12 (1): 178–179. doi:10.1080/14682745.2012.655450. S2CID 153737719.
Zdravomyslov, Andrei (1995). "Диссидентское движение в свете социологии конфликта. А.Д. Сахаров" [Dissident movement in the light of sociology of conflict. A.D. Sakharov]. Социология конфликта. Россия на путях преодоления кризиса. Учебное пособие для студентов высших учебных заведений [Sociology of conflict. Russia on ways to overcome crisis. Textbook for students of higher educational institutions] (in Russian). Moscow: Аспект-пресс. pp. 264–267. ISBN 978-5756700091.
Zukerman, William (1964). Voice of dissent: Jewish problems, 1948–1961. Brookman Associates.
Zuzowski, Robert (December 1985). "The significance of dissent in the Soviet Union". Australian Outlook. 39 (3): 165–170. doi:10.1080/10357718508444890.
Zveteremich, Pietro (1983). Dissenso e no: esiste una letteratura "sovietica"?: estratto da Nuovi Annali della Facoltà di Magistero dell'Università di Messina [Dissent and no: does "Soviet" literature exist?: extract from New Annals of the Faculty of Education at the University of Messina] (in Italian). Editrice Herder.

Insiders' works

Alexeyeva, Ludmilla (1977–1978). "The human rights movement in the USSR". Survey. 23 (4): 72–85.
Alekseeva, Liudmila (1980). The diversity of Soviet dissent: ideologies, goals and direction, 1965–1980.
Alexeyeva, Ludmilla (1987) [1985]. Soviet dissent: contemporary movements for national, religious, and human rights (2 ed.). Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 978-0-8195-6176-3.
Amalrik, Andrei (1982). Записки диссидента [Dissident's Notes] (in Russian). Ann Arbor: Ардис.
Amalrik, Andrei (1 March 1978). "Soviet dissidents and the American press: a reply". Columbia Journalism Review. 16 (6): 63.
Boukovsky, Vladimir (1995). Jugement à Moscou – un dissident dans les archives du Kremlin [Judgement in Moscow – a dissident in the Kremlin archives] (in French). Paris: Robert Laffont. ISBN 978-2-221-07460-2.
Brodsky, Joseph (19 September 1974). "An appeal for Vladimir Maramzin". The New York Review of Books. 21 (14).
Brodsky, Joseph (23 January 1975). "Victims". The New York Review of Books. 21 (21).
Brodsky, Joseph (5 March 1981). "Nadezhda Mandelstam (1899–1980)". The New York Review of Books. 28 (3).
Brodsky, Joseph (March 1992). "Poetry as a form of resistance to reality". Publications of the Modern Language Association of America. 107 (2): 220–225. doi:10.2307/462635. JSTOR 462635. S2CID 164173456.
Bukovsky, Vladimir (1978). To build a castle: my life as a dissenter (PDF). London: Andrei Deutsch. ISBN 978-0-233-97023-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 May 2013. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
Boukovsky, Vladimir (1971). Une nouvelle maladie mentale en URSS: l'opposition [A new mental illness in the USSR: the opposition] (in French). Paris: Le Seuil. ISBN 2020025272.
Bukowski, Wladimir (1971). UdSSR. Opposition. Eine neue Geisteskrankheit in der Sowjetunion? Eine Dokumentation von W. Bukowskij [The USSR. Opposition. A new mental illness in the Soviet Union? Documentation by V. Bukovsky] (in German). München: Carl Hanser Verlag. ISBN 3-446-11571-4.
Bukovskij, Vladimir (1972). Una nuova malattia mentale in Urss: l'opposizione [A new mental illness in the USSR: opposition] (in Italian). Milan: Etas Kompass.
Bukovsky, Vladimir (1972). Una nueva enfermedad mental en la U.R.S.S.: la oposición [A new mental illness in the USSR: opposition] (in Spanish). México: Lasser Press.
Bukovsky, Vladimir; Gluzman, Semyon (January–February 1975a). "Пособие по психиатрии для инакомыслящих" [A manual on psychiatry for dissidents] (PDF). Хроника защиты прав в СССР [Chronicle of defense of rights in the USSR] (in Russian) (13): 36–61. The work in Russian was also published in: Коротенко, Ада; Аликина, Наталия (2002). Советская психиатрия: Заблуждения и умысел. Киев: Издательство «Сфера». pp. 197–218. ISBN 978-966-7841-36-2. The work in English was published in: Bloch, Sidney; Reddaway, Peter (1977). Russia's political hospitals: the abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union. Victor Gollancz Ltd. pp. 419–440. ISBN 978-0-575-02318-5.
Bukovsky, Vladimir; Gluzman, Semyon (Winter–Spring 1975b). "A manual on psychiatry for dissidents". Survey: A Journal of East and West Studies. 21 (1): 180–199.
Bukovsky, Vladimir; Gluzman, Semyon (1975c). A manual of psychiatry for political dissidents. London: Amnesty International. OCLC 872337790.
Bukovsky, Vladimir; Gluzman, Semyon (1975d). "A dissident's guide to psychiatry". A Chronicle of Human Rights in the USSR (13). New York: Kronika Press: 31–57.
Bukovskiĭ, Vladimir; Gluzman, Semyon (1975e). Håndbog i psykiatri for afvigere [A manual on psychiatry for dissidents] (in Danish). Göteborg: Samarbetsdynamik AB. ISBN 9185396001. OCLC 7551381.
Boukovsky, Vladimir; Glouzmann, Semion (September 1975). "Guide de psychiatrie pour les dissidents soviétiques: dédié à Lonia Pliouchtch, victime de la terreur psychiatrique" [Guide on psychiatry for Soviet dissidents: dedicated to Lyonya Plyushch, a victim of psychiatric terror]. Esprit (in French). 449 (9): 307–332. JSTOR 24263203.
Bukovskij, Vladimir; Gluzman, Semen; Leva, Marco (1979). Guida psichiatrica per dissidenti. Con esempi pratici e una lettera dal Gulag [Psychiatric guide for dissidents. With practical examples and a letter from the Gulag] (in Italian). Milan: L'erba voglio. ASIN B00E3B4JK4.
Bukowski, Wladimir; Gluzman, Semen (1976). "Psychiatrie-handbuch für dissidenten" [A manual on psychiatry for dissidents]. Samisdat. Stimmen aus dem "anderen Rußland" (in German) (8). Bern: 29–48.
Bunyan, Gordon; Hurst, P.D. (April 1977). "Political opposition in the Soviet Union: are the dissidents really important?". Australian Outlook. 31 (1): 61–74. doi:10.1080/10357717708444592.
Chalidze, Valery (1976). Литературные дела КГБ: дела Суперфина, Эткинда, Хейфеца, Марамзина: в приложении — документы о советской цензуре [The literary cases of the KGB: the cases of Superfin, Etkind, Heifetz, Maramzin: there are documents about Soviet censorship in the application] (in Russian). New York: Хроника.
Chalidze, Valery (1 June 1977). "How important is Soviet dissent?". Commentary. 63 (6): 57.
Daniel, Alexander (2002). Истоки и корни диссидентской активности в СССР [Sources and roots of dissident activity in the USSR]. Неприкосновенный запас [Emergency Ration] (in Russian). 1 (21).
Daniel, Aleksander; Gluza, Zbigniew, eds. (2007). Słownik dysydentów. Czołowe postacie ruchów opozycyjnych w krajach komunistycznych w latach 1956–1989. Tom 1 [Dictionary of dissidents. The leading figures of the opposition movements in communist countries in 1956–1989. Volume 1] (in Polish). Warszaw: Karta. ISBN 978-8388288890.
Daniel, Aleksander; Gluza, Zbigniew, eds. (2007). Słownik dysydentów. Czołowe postacie ruchów opozycyjnych w krajach komunistycznych w latach 1956–1989. Tom 2 [Dictionary of dissidents. The leading figures of the opposition movements in communist countries in 1956–1989. Volume 2] (in Polish). Warszaw: Karta. ISBN 978-8388288845.
Etkind, Efim (1978). Notes of a non-conspirator. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-211739-7.
Etkind, Efim (1982) [1978]. Unblutige Hinrichtung. Warum ich die Sowjetunion verlassen musste [Bloodless execution. Why I had to leave the Soviet Union] (in German) (2 ed.). München: Piper Verlag GmbH. ISBN 978-3-492-02339-9.
Etkind, Efim (1988). Процесс Иосифа Бродского [The trial of Joseph Brodsky] (in Russian). London: Overseas Publications Interchange Ltd. ISBN 978-1-870128-70-4.
Galanskov, Youri (1982). Le manifeste humain précédé par les témoignages de Vladimir Boukovsky, Nathalia Gorbanevskaïa, Alexandre Guinzbourg, Edouard Kouznetsov [Human manifesto preceded by testimonies of Vladimir Bukovsky, Natalya Gorbanevskaya, Alexander Ginzburg, Eduard Kuznetsov] (in French). Lausanne: Editions L'Age d'Homme. ISBN 978-2825109205.
Glazov, Yuri (June 1979). "The Soviet intelligentsia, dissidents and the West". Studies in Soviet Thought. 19 (4): 321–344. doi:10.1007/BF00832020. JSTOR 20098853. S2CID 140301241.
Gluzman, Semyon (2012). Рисунки по памяти, или воспоминания отсидента [Pictures drawn from memory, or the released dissident's memories] (in Russian). Kiev: Издательский дом Дмитрия Бураго. ISBN 978-9664891216.
Goricheva, Tatiana (1987). Talking about God is dangerous: the diary of a Russian dissident. New York: Crossroad Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8245-0798-5.
Grigoryants, Sergei (23 February 1988). "Soviet psychiatric prisoners" (PDF). The New York Times. p. A31. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 December 2011.
Grigoryants, Sergei (January 1989). "Camps with guards in white gowns: thousands of Mengeles, millions of victims". Glasnost (16–18): 34–35.
Isajiw, Christina (2013). Negotiating human rights: in defence of dissidents during the Soviet era: a memoir. University of Alberta Press. ISBN 978-1-894865-33-3.
Kaminskaya, Dina (1982). Final judgment: my life as a Soviet defense attorney. Translated by Michael Glenny. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-24739-3.
Koryagin, Anatoly (March 1989). "The involvement of Soviet psychiatry in the persecution of dissenters". The British Journal of Psychiatry. 154 (3): 336–340. doi:10.1192/bjp.154.3.336. PMID 2597834. S2CID 26148412.
Levich, Yevgeny (1976). "Soviet dissidents: trying to keep in touch". Nature. 263 (5576): 366–367. Bibcode:1976Natur.263..366L. doi:10.1038/263366a0. S2CID 4220291.
Lewis, Anthony (20 September 1985). "Soviet crackdown on dissidents shows paranoia, not confidence". Spokane Chronicle. p. 14.
Litvinov, Pavel (1969). Dear Comrade: Pavel Litvinov and the voices of Soviet citizens in dissent. Pitman Publishing Corporation. ASIN B000O05GKK.
Litvinov, Pavel (March 1975). "The human rights movement in the USSR". Index on Censorship. 4 (1): 11–15. doi:10.1080/03064227508532389. S2CID 146906418.
Litvinov, Pavel (Winter 1980). "Momentary enthusiasms don't help – only persistence will secure human rights gains". Jurimetrics. 21 (2): 135–142. JSTOR 29761738.
Lubarsky, Cronid (1979). Soziale Basis und Umfang des sowjetischen Dissidententums [Social basis and scope of Soviet dissidence] (in German). Köln: Bundesinstitut für Ostwissenschaftliche und Internationale Studien.
Lubarsky, Cronid (1979). "Social basis and scope of Soviet dissidence". Osteuropa. 29 (11): 923–935.
Lubarsky, Cronid (May 1988). "The human rights movement and perestroika". Index on Censorship. 17 (5): 16–20. doi:10.1080/03064228808534412. S2CID 145697936.
Mal'cev, Jurij (2015). "I dissidenti sovietici in Italia" [The Soviet dissidents in Italy]. Enthymema (in Italian) (12): 155–159. doi:10.13130/2037-2426/4951.
Mal'cev, Jurij (2015). "I dissidenti sovietici in Italia" Советские диссиденты в Италии [The Soviet dissidents in Italy]. Enthymema (in Russian) (12): 156–160. doi:10.13130/2037-2426/4951.
Medvedev, Roy (March 1979). "The future of Soviet dissent". Index on Censorship. 8 (2): 25–31. doi:10.1080/03064227908532898. S2CID 144007468.
Medvedev, Roy (1 January 1984). "Andropov and the dissidents: the internal atmosphere under the new Soviet leadership". Dissent. 31 (1): 97–102.
Medvedev, Roy (2 July 1997). "Russia still needs dissidents to defend rights". The Moscow Times.
Medvedev, Roy; Vladimov, Georgi (May 1979). "Controversy: dissent among dissidents". Index on Censorship. 8 (3): 33–37. doi:10.1080/03064227908532924. S2CID 147185209.
Medvedev, Roy; Medvedev, Zhores (1976). "Krushchev's secret speech". Australian Left Review. 1 (52): 34–37.
Medvedev, Roy; Ostellino, Piero (1980). On Soviet dissent. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-04812-5.
Medvedev, Zhores (21 February 1976). "The defeat of Russian dissent". The Spectator: 8–9.
Medvedev, Zhores (4 November 1976). "Two decades off dissidence". New Scientist. 72 (1025): 264–267.
Orlov, Yuri (1988). "The Soviet Union, human rights, and national security". In Corillon, Carol (ed.). Science and human rights. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. pp. 62–67.
Mihajlov, Mihajlo (September 2006). "Appointment with destiny: a dissident's tale". Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies. 18 (1/2): 113–120. doi:10.5840/jis2006181/26.
Navrozov, Lev (1 November 1973). "On Soviet dissidence". Commentary. 56 (5): 31–36.
Plyushch, Leonid; Mikhaylov, Mikhaylo; Belotserkovsky, Vadim; Elberfeld, Yan; Andreev, Herman; Vishnevskaya, Yuliya; Yanov, Alexander; Levitin-Krasnov, Anatoly; Etkind, Efim; Kushev, Yevgeny (1976). Democraticeskij Alternativi von Vadim Belocerkovskij – 978-3-88103-070-0 СССР. Демократические альтернативы: сборник статей и документов [USSR. Democratic alternatives: a collection of articles and documents] (in Russian). Achberg. ISBN 978-3-88103-070-0. OCLC 3953394.
Plyushch, Leonid; Khodorovich, Tatyana (1979). History's carnival: a dissident's autobiography. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ISBN 978-0-15-141614-1.
Podrabinek, Alexander (2014). Диссиденты [Dissidents] (in Russian). Moscow: АСТ. ISBN 978-5170824014.
Sakharov, Andrei (21 March 1974). "How I came to dissent". The New York Review of Books. 21 (4).
Sakharov, Andrei (Fall 1978). "The human rights movement in the USSR and Eastern Europe: its goals, significance, and difficulties". Trialogue (19): 4–7, 26–27.
Sakharov, Andrei; Turchin, Valentin; Medvedev, Roy (6 June 1970). "The need for democratization". The Saturday Review: 26–27.
Shtromas, Alexander (1979) [1977]. Who are the Soviet dissidents? (2 ed.). University of Bradford. ISBN 978-0-901945-35-8.
Shtromas, Alexander (Summer–Autumn 1979). "Dissent and political change in the Soviet Union". Studies in Comparative Communism. 12 (2–3): 212–244. doi:10.1016/0039-3592(79)90010-3.
Shtromas, Alexander (Autumn–Winter 1987). "Dissent, nationalism, and the Soviet future". Studies in Comparative Communism. 20 (3–4): 277–285.
Sinyavsky, Andrei (April 1979). "Andrei Sinyavsky on dissidence". Encounter. 52 (4): 91–93.
Sinyavsky, Andrei (Spring 1984). "Dissent as a personal experience". Dissent. 31 (2): 152–161.
Solzhenitsyn, Alexander (November 1970). "Two from Solzhenitsyn (letters)" (PDF). Dissent. 17 (6): 558–559. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 October 2015.
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Venclova, Tomas (Summer 2009). "Lithuanian dissent in the context of Central and Eastern Europe: 1953–1980". Lithuanian Quarterly Journal of Arts and Sciences. 55 (2): 38–50.
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Audiovisual material

Collapsed list

Альфавит инакомыслия [Alphabet of dissent]. Радио Свобода (in Russian). Radio Liberty.
Natella Boltyanskaya (16 March 2016). "Episode One – Dissidents: Who are they?". Voice of America. Parallels, Events, People.
Natella Boltyanskaya (16 March 2016). "Episode Two – Dissidents: What did they want?". Voice of America. Parallels, Events, People.
Лошак, Андрей (3 September 2013). Анатомия процесса [The anatomy of a trial (video of the documentary)] (in Russian). TV Rain.
Певзнер, Гелия (31 May 2016). Сергей Ковалев: "Голоса мудрецов — ничтожная доля процента" [Sergei Kovalev: Voices of sages is a tiny fraction of percent] (in Russian). Radio France Internationale.
Подрабинек, Александр (31 May 2014). Военная экспансия и репрессии [Military expansion and repression]. Радио Свобода (in Russian). Radio Liberty.
Vladimir V. Kara-Murza (22 August 2013). "They Chose Freedom: The Story of Soviet Dissidents (The documentary in English available to watch online)". Institute of Modern Russia. Archived from the original on 7 April 2016. Retrieved 28 March 2016.
The history of the MHG and human rights movement, in Russian, 53 min on YouTube
Václav Havel and Soviet Dissidents, 8 min on YouTube
"Nonconformism and Dissent in the Soviet Bloc: Guiding Legacy or Passing Memory?". Harriman Institute, Columbia University. 1 April 2011. Archived from the original on 16 February 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2016.
- Day 1, Panel 1, 84 min on YouTube
- Day 2, Panel 1, 134 min on YouTube
- Day 2, Panel 2, 119 min on YouTube
- Day 2, Panel 3, 112 min on YouTube
- Day 3, Panel 1, 83 min on YouTube
- Day 3, Panel 2, 106 min on YouTube
- Day 3, Panel 3, 107 min on YouTube

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[D-2] Chronicle of Current Events (samizdat) Archived 2011-03-16 at the Wayback Machine (in Russian)

[3] Smith, Stephen (2014). The Oxford handbook of the history of communism. OUP Oxford. p. 379. ISBN 978-0-19-960205-6.

[4] Taras, Raymond, ed. (2015) [1992]. The road to disillusion: from critical Marxism to post-communism in Eastern Europe (2 ed.). Routledge. p. 62. ISBN 978-1-317-45479-3.

[u-5] Universal Declaration of Human Rights General Assembly resolution 217 A (III), United Nations, 10 December 1948

[de-6] Proclamation of Tehran, Final Act of the International Conference on Human Rights, Teheran, 22 April to 13 May 1968, U.N. Doc. A/CONF. 32/41 at 3 (1968), United Nations, May 1968

[act-7] CONFERENCE ON SECURITY AND CO-OPERATION IN EUROPE FINAL ACT. Helsinki, 1 aug. 1975 Archived 2011-05-31 at the Wayback Machine

[8] Barber, John (October 1997). "Opposition in Russia". Government and Opposition. 32 (4): 598–613. doi:10.1111/j.1477-7053.1997.tb00448.x. S2CID 145793949.

[9] Rosenthal, Abe (2 June 1989). "Soviet dissenters used to die for speaking out". The Dispatch. p. 5.

[10] Stone, Alan (1985). Law, psychiatry, and morality: essays and analysis. American Psychiatric Pub. pp. 5. ISBN 978-0-88048-209-7.

[11] Singer, Daniel (2 January 1998). "Socialism and the Soviet Bloc". The Nation. Archived from the original on 27 September 2018. Retrieved 26 November 2015.

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[13] Shirk, Susan (Winter 1977–1978). "Human rights: what about China?". Foreign Policy (29): 109–127. doi:10.2307/1148534. JSTOR 1148534.

[14] Bergman, Jay (July 1992). "Soviet dissidents on the Holocaust, Hitler and Nazism: a study of the preservation of historical memory". The Slavonic and East European Review. 70 (3): 477–504. JSTOR 4211013.

[15] Yakobson, Anatoly; Yakir, Pyotr; Khodorovich, Tatyana; Podyapolskiy, Gregory; Maltsev, Yuri; et al. (21 August 1969). "An Appeal to The UN Committee for Human Rights". The New York Review of Books. 13 (3).

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[18] Fox, Karen; Skorobogatykh, Irina; Saginova, Olga (September 2005). "The Soviet evolution of marketing thought, 1961–1991: from Marx to marketing". Marketing Theory. 5 (3): 283–307. doi:10.1177/1470593105054899. S2CID 154474714.

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[20] Binder, David (Summer 1977). "The quiet dissident: East Germany's Reiner Kunze". The Wilson Quarterly. 1 (4): 158–160. JSTOR 40255268.

[21] "Helsinki pact said abused". The Spokesman-Review. 28 November 1976. p. A11.

[22] Поляковская, Елена; Олейников, Антон; Гаврилов, Андрей (1 August 2015). Хельсинкский аккорд [Helsinki Accord]. Радио Свобода (in Russian). Radio Liberty.

[23] Prisoners of conscience in the USSR: Their treatment and conditions (PDF, immediate download). London: Amnesty International Publications. 1975. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-900058-13-4.

[24] Political Prisoners in the U.S.S.R. New York: The Committee for the Defense of Soviet Political Prisoners. 1975.

[25] Inside Soviet prisons. Documents of the struggle for human and national rights in the USSR (PDF). New York: The Committee for the Defense of Soviet Political Prisoners. 1976. OCLC 3514696. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 November 2015.

[26] The abuse of psychiatry in the USSR: Soviet dissenters in psychiatric prisons. New York: The Committee for the Defense of Soviet Political Prisoners. 1976. ASIN B00CRZ0EAC.

[Howell-27] Howell, John (Spring 1983). "The Carter human rights policy as applied to the Soviet Union". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 13 (2): 286–295. JSTOR 27547926.

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[29] Marder, Murrey (19 February 1977). "Carter firm as Soviets assail support of dissidents". The Washington Post.

[30] Dean, Richard (January–March 1980). "Contacts with the West: the dissidents' view of Western support for the human rights movement in the Soviet Union". Universal Human Rights. 2 (1): 47–65. doi:10.2307/761802. JSTOR 761802.

[31] Snyder, Sarah (2011). Human rights activism and the end of the Cold War: a transnational history of the Helsinki network. Cambridge University Press. p. 73. ISBN 978-1-139-49892-0.

[32] Volkogonov, Dmitri; Shukman, Harold (1998). Autopsy for an empire: the seven leaders who built the Soviet regime. Simon & Schuster. p. 342. ISBN 978-0-684-83420-7.

[33] Yankelevich, Tatyana (1985). "Silence is the crime". Human Rights. 13 (13): 40.

[Shlapentokh-34] Shlapentokh, Vladimir (1990). Soviet intellectuals and political power: the post-Stalin era. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-85043-284-5.

[35] Sharlet, Robert (1978). "Dissent and repression in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe: changing patterns since Khrushchev" (PDF). International Journal. 33, n.4 (4): 766. doi:10.2307/40201689. JSTOR 40201689 – via JSTOR.

[36] Ерошок, Зоя (13 February 2015). Людмила Алексеева: "Я — человек, склонный быть счастливым" [Lyudmila Alexeyeva, "I am a man prone to be happy"]. Novaya Gazeta (in Russian). No. 15.

[37] Murray, Thomas (June 1983). "Genetic screening in the workplace: ethical issues". Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 25 (6): 451–454. doi:10.1097/00043764-198306000-00009. PMID 6886846.

[38] Reich, Walter (August 1978). "Diagnosing Soviet dissidents. Courage becomes madness, and deviance disease". Harper's Magazine. 257 (1539): 31–37. PMID 11662503.

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[40] Shapiro, Leon (1971). "Soviet Union". American Jewish Year Book. 72 (72): 400–410. JSTOR 23605325.

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[42] Shlapentokh, Vladimir (March 1990). "The justification of political conformism: the mythology of Soviet intellectuals". Studies in Soviet Thought. 39 (2): 111–135. doi:10.1007/BF00838027. JSTOR 20100501. S2CID 143908122.

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[daniel-istoki2-57] Daniel, Alexander (2002). Истоки и корни диссидентской активности в СССР [Sources and roots of dissident activity in the USSR]. Неприкосновенный запас [Emergency Ration] (in Russian). 1 (21).

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[gerlant-law-62] Gerlant, Uta (2010). ""The law is our only language": Soviet dissidents and human rights". Human rights and history: a challenge for education. Berlin: Stiftung "Erinnerung, Verantwortung und Zukunft". pp. 130–141. ISBN 978-3-9810631-9-6.

[alexeyeva-dissent-63] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Alexeyeva, Ludmilla (1987). Soviet dissent: contemporary movements for national, religious, and human rights. Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press. p. 275. ISBN 978-0-8195-6176-3.

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[66] Ivakhnyuk, Irina. "Russians and Migrant Workers Want to Leave Russia to Work and Live in the West." Russia, edited by Viqi Wagner, Detroit, MI, Greenhaven Press, 2009. Opposing Viewpoints. Gale in Context: Opposing Viewpoints, link-gale-com.lpclibrary.idm.oclc.org/apps/doc/EJ3010232247/ OVIC?u=live10669&sid=bookmark-OVIC&xid=e561da75. Accessed 27 Sept. 2021. Originally published in International Symposium on International Migration and Development, Population Division, Department of Economic and Social

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