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Karu language

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Not to be confused with Baniwa of Guainia.
Karu
Baniwa of Içana
Tapuya
Native toColombia, Venezuela, Brazil
EthnicityBaniwa people
Native speakers
12,000 (2001–2007)[1]
Arawakan
Dialects
  • Carútana-Baniwa
  • Hohôdene (Katapolitana)
  • Siusy-Tapuya (Seuci)
  • Ipeka-Tapuia
  • Curripaco (Wakuénai)
  • Unhun (Katapolitana, Enhen)
  • Waliperi
  • Mapanai
  • Moriwene
Official status
Official language in
 Brazil (São Gabriel da Cachoeira)
Language codes
ISO 639-3Either:
bwi – Baniwa
kpc – Curripako
Glottologbani1259  Baniwa-Curripaco
ELP

Karu, one of several languages called Baniwa (Baniva), or in older sources Itayaine (Iyaine), is an Arawakan language spoken in Guainía, Colombia, Venezuela, and Amazonas, Brazil. It forms a subgroup with the Tariana, Piapoco, Resígaro and Guarequena languages.[2] There are 10,000 speakers.[3]

Varieties

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Aikhenvald (1999) considers the three main varieties to be dialects; Kaufman (1994) considers them to be distinct languages, in a group he calls "Karu". They are:

  • Baniwa of Içana (Baniua do Içana)
  • Curripaco (Kurripako, Ipeka-Tapuia-Curripako)
  • Katapolítani-Moriwene-Mapanai (Catapolitani, Kadaupuritana)

Various (sub)dialects of all three are called tapuya, a Brazilian Portuguese and Nheengatu word for non-Tupi/non-Guarani Indigenous peoples of Brazil (from a Tupi word meaning "enemy, barbarian"). All are spoken by the Baniwa people. Ruhlen lists all as "Izaneni"; Greenberg's Adzánani (= Izaneni) presumably belongs here.

Ramirez (2020) gives the following classification for three separate dialect chains:[4]: 44 

  • Southern (Karotana): lower Içana River, also a group living in Victorino on the Guainia River (Colombia-Venezuela border)
    • Mapatsi-Dákeenai (Yurupari-Tapuya)
    • Wadzoli-Dákeenai (Urubu-Tapuya)
    • Dzawi-Mínanai (Yauareté-Tapuya)
    • Adaro-Mínanai (Arara-Tapuya)
  • Central (Baniwa): middle Içana River (from Assunção Mission to Siuci-Cachoeira) and its tributaries (Aiari River and lower Cuiari River); also around Tunuí
    • Hohódeeni
    • Walipere-Dákeenai (Siucí-Tapuya)
    • Máolieni (Cáuatapuya)
    • Mápanai (Ira-Tapuya)
    • Awádzoronai
    • Molíweni (Sucuriyú-Tapuya)
    • Kadáopoliri
    • etc.
  • Northern (called "Koripako" in Brazil): upper Içana River (from Matapi upwards), Guainia River, headwaters of the Cuiari River
    • Ayáneeni (Tatú-Tapuya)
    • Payoálieni (Pacútapuya)
    • Komada-Mínanai (Ipéca-Tapuya)
    • Kapitti-Mínanai (Coatí-Tapuya)
    • etc.

Phonology

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Vowels[5]
Front Central Back
High i iː
Mid e eː o oː
Low a aː
  • When occurring as short, the vowels /i e a o/ are realized as [ɪ ɛ ə ʊ]. They are also realized as both short and long nasals /ĩ ẽ ɐ̃ õ/, [ɪ̃ ɛ̃ ə̃ ʊ̃].
Consonants[6]
Bilabial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal voiced m n ɲ (ŋ)
voiceless m̥ n̥ ɲ̊
Plosive plain p t̪ t k
aspirated pʰ t̪ʰ tʰ kʰ
voiced b d
Affricate plain ts tʃ
aspirated tsʰ tʃʰ
voiced dz dʒ
Fricative plain ɸ ʃ ʂ ç h
voiced β ʐ
Flap voiced ɺ
voiceless ɺ̥
Approximant w ~ ʍ j ~ j̊
  • Voiced approximant sounds can fluctuate to voiceless sounds among dialects.
  • /ŋ/ only occurs when preceding a velar consonant.
  • /ɺ̥, ɺ/ is in free variation with [ɾ̥, ɾ].[7]

Grammar

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Alignment System

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Baniwa has active–stative alignment.[8] This means that the subject of an intransitive clause is sometimes marked in the same way as the agent of a transitive clause, and sometimes marked in the same way as the patient of a transitive clause. In Baniwa alignment is realized through verbal agreement, namely prefixes and enclitics.

Prefixes are used to mark:

  • Active intransitive subjects (Sa)
  • Agents of transitive clauses (A)
  • Possessors
  • Arguments of adpositions

Enclitics are used to mark:

  • Stative intransitive subjects (So)
  • Patients of transitive clauses (O)
Prefixes Enclitics
singular plural singular plural
1st person nu- wa- -hnua -hwa
2nd person pi- i- -phia -ihia
3rd
person 		Nonfeminine ri- na- -ni/ -hria -hna
Feminine ʒu-
Impersonal pa- -pha

The differences between active and stative intransitive clauses can be illustrated below:

  • Transitive: ri-kapa-ni 'He sees him/it'
  • Active Intransitive: ri-emhani 'He walks'
  • Stative Intransitive: hape-ka-ni 'He is cold'

Noun Classification System

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Baniwa has an interesting system of noun classification that combines a gender system with a noun classifier system.[9] Baniwa has two genders: feminine and nonfeminine. Feminine gender agreement is used to refer to female referents, whilst nonfeminine gender agreement is used for all other referents. The two genders are only distinguished in third person singular. Aihkenvald (2007) considers the bipartite gender system to be inherited from Proto-Arawak.[9]

In addition to gender, Baniwa also has 46 classifiers. Classifiers are used in three main contexts:[9]

  • As a derivational suffix on nouns, e.g.

tʃipaɾa-api

metal.object-CL.hollow

tʃipaɾa-api

metal.object-CL.hollow

'pan'

  • With numerals, e.g.

apa-api

one-CL.hollow

mawapi

blowgun+CL.long.thin

apa-api mawapi

one-CL.hollow blowgun+CL.long.thin

'one blow gun'

  • With adjectives, e.g.

tʃipaɾa-api

metal.object-CL.hollow

maka-api

big-CL.hollow

tʃipaɾa-api maka-api

metal.object-CL.hollow big-CL.hollow

'big pan'

Aihkenvald (2007) divides Baniwa classifiers into four different classes. One set of classifiers is used for humans, animate beings and body parts. Another set of classifiers specify the shape, consistency, quantification or specificity of the noun. Two more classes can be distinguished. One is only used with numerals and the other is only used with adjectives.[9]

Classifiers for Humans and animate beings:[9]

Classifier Usage Example
-ita for animate males and body parts apa-ita pedaɾia 'one old man'
-hipa for human males only aphepa nawiki 'one man'
-ma for female referents apa-ma inaʒu 'one woman'

Classifiers according to shape, consistency, quantification and specificity:[9]

Classifier Usage Example
-da round objects, natural phenomena and generic classifier hipada 'stone'
-apa flying animate, semioval objects kepiʒeni 'bird'
-kwa flat, round, extended objects kaida 'beach'
-kha curvilinear objects a:pi 'snake'
-na vertical, standing objects haiku 'tree'
-Ø hollow, small objects a:ta 'cup'
-maka stretchable, extended objects tsaia 'skirt'
-ahna liquids u:ni 'water'
-ima sides apema nu-kapi makemaɾi 'one big side of my hand'
-pa boxes, parcels apa-'pa itsa maka-paɾi one big box of fishing hooks'
-wana thin slice apa-wana kuphe maka-wane 'a big thin slice of fish'
-wata bundle for carrying apa-wata paɾana maka-wate 'a big bundle of bananas'
-Ø canoes i:ta 'canoe'
-pawa rivers u:ni 'river'
-ʃa excrement iʃa 'excrement'
-ya skins dzawiya 'jaguar skin'

Negation

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There are two main strategies for negation in the Kurripako-Baniwa varieties:[3]

  • Independent negative markers
  • The privative derivational prefix ma-

Different varieties have different negative markers. This is so prominent that speakers identify Kurripako dialects according to the words for 'yes' and 'no'.[3]

Dialect Spoken in Yes No
Aha-Khuri Colombia, Venezuela & Brazil Aha Khuri
Ehe-Khenim Venezuela Ehe Khenim
Oho-Karo Colombia & Brazil Oho Karo
Oho-Ñame Colombia & Brazil Oho Ñame

The independent negative markers come before the verb. They are used as clausal negators in declarative and interrogative sentences. They are also used to link clauses.[3]

The privative suffix is attached to nouns to derive a verb which means 'lacking' the noun from which it was derived. The opposite of the privative prefix is the attributive prefix ka-. This derives a verb which means 'having' the noun from which it was derived.[3] The difference can be illustrated below:

  • Noun: iipe 'meat'
  • Privative: ma-iipe > meepe 'be thin' (lit. lack meat)
  • Attributive: ka-iipe > keepe 'be fat' (lit. have meat)

The prefix is used in combination with the restrictive suffix -tsa to form negative imperatives, e.g. ma-ihnia-tsa 'don't eat!'. A privative prefix is also reconstructed in Proto-Arawak privative as *ma-.[10]

Word Order

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Granadillo (2014) considers Kurripako a VOS language.[3]

Vocabulary

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Verbs[11]
Baniwa English
Kapa To See
Za To Drink
Hima To Hear
Cami To Die
Nu To Come
Baniwa English
atxinari man
inarru woman
yene-pati boy
inarru girl
yém-beti child
pa-dzo father
noo-dua mother
noenipe son
noo-ido daughter
nuda-querri grandchild
nuda-queda grand-daughter
nutxi-marré genre
noo-ito daughter-in-law
noo-querri uncle
nocuiro aunt
ni-ri nephew
nôpérrirri niece
no-ri brother-in-law
no-i-dua sister-in-law
noo-perri grandfather
indaque-dua grandmother
ne-wi-da head
no-txi eyes
notxi-macaia right eye
noca-cuda left eye
notxi-coré hair
noécoá forehead
noéni ears
itaco nose
nunuma mouth
noénéne tongue
noé-txa teeth
nunumaia lips
nuca-cuià face
nué-râ chin
nué-galico neck
nuqui-apà shoulders
no-cudà chest
numiruapi ribs
nucaré heart
no-eni lung
no-au-à stomach
nona-pa right or left arm
no-capi right or left hand
no-motxi navel
no-capuira fingers
no-cotxi leg
no-ipà foot
no-ipé-uidà toes
no-coro-da to heel
nosso-tà nail
e-eno sky
e-uitxi stars
amôri sun
ke-rri moon
e-eno thunderbolt
e-quapi day
de-pi night
i-zzapà hill, mountain
u-uni river
cá-retá lake
i-zzá rain
cuára wind
inhau-opo stream
u-ni water
qué-véré island
ri-ipá waterfall
kenihé farm
pan-ete house
ni-dá canoe
ti-iná ranch
i-ipaí yard
ti-izzé fire, firewood
tizé-ven ember
ye-tá network
u-paí floor
ai-co tree
cuia gourd
no-inhau-adá food
cápa do
má-tari axe
to-rro pan
to-ro-dá clay pot
guaraia basket
dôpetzi sieve
paraná banana
cae-ini manioc
ma-tsoca flour
noo-cacá, cará-atxi sweet potato
a-pi pepper
mapa sugar cane
matxucá chicken
rie-fé egg
ci-no dog
a-pidzá pig
tzzaui ounce
né-irri deer
ti-itxi agouti
aridari armadillo
e-má tapir
cal-xerri alligator
cu-pé fish
acorro animal
hamé ant
maroio beads
yukira salt
palito matches
txurra trousers
ma-uidá comb
hon-hon yes
curi-papa no
no-i-no single
no-i-nerri married
no-ine-dzango widower
ma-txi-áde good
dopo ugly
matxidé bad
a-perri cold
a-mûde hot, warm
tacua fever
cá-ide ache
pauéridza one
dzamâuari two
madariaui three
uadáca four

Further reading

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  • Gonçalves, Artur Garcia. 2018. Para uma dialetologia baniwa-koripako do rio Içana. M.A. dissertation, Universidade de Brasília.

References

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  1. ^ Baniwa at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
    Curripako at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  2. ^ Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (2014-01-01). Negation in Tariana: A North Arawak Perspective in the Light of Areal Diffusion. doi:10.1163/9789004257023_006. Archived from the original on 2015-07-21. Retrieved 2015-07-17.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Granadillo, Tania (2014-01-01). On Negation in Kurripako Ehe-Khenim. doi:10.1163/9789004257023_005. Archived from the original on 2015-07-21. Retrieved 2015-07-17.
  4. ^ Ramirez, Henri (2020). Enciclopédia das línguas Arawak: acrescida de seis novas línguas e dois bancos de dados. Vol. 1 (1 ed.). Curitiba: Editora CRV. doi:10.24824/978655578895.2. ISBN 978-65-5578-895-2. Archived from the original on 2021-06-24. Retrieved 2021-04-08.
  5. ^ de Souza (2012), p. 42.
  6. ^ de Souza (2012), p. 43.
  7. ^ de Souza (2012), p. 83.
  8. ^ Aikhenvald, "Arawak", in Dixon & Aikhenvald, eds., The Amazonian Languages, 1999.
  9. ^ a b c d e f Aikhenvald, Alexandra (2007). "Classifiers in Multiple Environments: Baniwa of Içana/Kurripako—A North Arawak Perspective on JSTOR". International Journal of American Linguistics. 73 (4): 475. doi:10.1086/523774.
  10. ^ Michael, Lev; Granadillo, Tania; Granadillo, Lev Michael|Tania (2014-01-01). Negation in Arawak Languages  » Brill Online. doi:10.1163/9789004257023. Archived from the original on 2015-07-21. Retrieved 2015-07-17.
  11. ^ "The ASJP Database - Wordlist Baniva". asjp.clld.org. Archived from the original on 2019-06-02. Retrieved 2019-06-02.

Bibliography

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de Souza, Erick Marcelo Lima (2012). Estudo Fonológico da Língua Baniwa-Kuripako [Phonological Analysis of the Baniwa-Kuripako language] (PDF) (Master's thesis) (in Brazilian Portuguese). University of Campinas. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-03-11. Retrieved 2017-06-24.

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Karu language test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator
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