Jump to content

Amputation

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Amputation stump)
Amputation
An amputee running with a blade prosthetic
SpecialtySurgery

Physical medicine and rehabilitation

Emergency medicine
ComplicationsPhantom limb syndrome
CausesTrauma or intentional as part of surgery and sometimes corporal punishment.
Part of a series on
Corporal punishment
By place
By implementation
By country
Court cases
Politics
Campaigns against corporal punishment
Criminal procedure
Criminal trials and convictions
Rights of the accused
Verdict
Sentencing
Post-sentencing
Related areas of law
Portals

Amputation is the removal of a limb by trauma, medical illness, or surgery. As a surgical measure, it is used to control pain or a disease process in the affected limb, such as malignancy or gangrene. In some cases, it is carried out on individuals as a preventive surgery for such problems. A special case is that of congenital amputation, a congenital disorder, where fetal limbs have been cut off by constrictive bands. In some countries, judicial amputation is currently used to punish people who commit crimes.[1][2][3][4] Amputation has also been used as a tactic in war and acts of terrorism; it may also occur as a war injury. In some cultures and religions, minor amputations or mutilations are considered a ritual accomplishment.[5][6][7] When done by a person, the person executing the amputation is an amputator.[8][9] The oldest evidence of this practice comes from a skeleton found buried in Liang Tebo cave, East Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo dating back to at least 31,000 years ago, where it was done when the amputee was a young child.[10]

Types

[edit]

Leg

[edit]

Lower limb amputations can be divided into two broad categories: minor and major amputations. Minor amputations generally refer to the amputation of digits. Major amputations are commonly below-knee- or above-knee amputations. Common partial foot amputations include the Chopart, Lisfranc, and ray amputations.

Common forms of ankle disarticulations include Pyrogoff, Boyd, and Syme amputations.[11] A less common major amputation is the Van Nes rotation, or rotationplasty, i.e. the turning around and reattachment of the foot to allow the ankle joint to take over the function of the knee.

Types of amputations include:

An above-knee amputation
partial foot amputation
amputation of the lower limb distal to the ankle joint
ankle disarticulation
amputation of the lower limb at the ankle joint
trans-tibial amputation
amputation of the lower limb between the knee joint and the ankle joint, commonly referred to as a below-knee amputation
knee disarticulation
amputation of the lower limb at the knee joint
trans-femoral amputation
amputation of the lower limb between the hip joint and the knee joint, commonly referred to an above-knee amputation
hip disarticulation
amputation of the lower limb at the hip joint
trans-pelvic disarticulation
amputation of the whole lower limb together with all or part of the pelvis, also known as a hemipelvectomy or hindquarter amputation

Arm

[edit]
The 18th century guide to amputations

Types of upper extremity amputations include:

  • partial hand amputation
  • wrist disarticulation
  • trans-radial amputation, commonly referred to as below-elbow or forearm amputation
  • elbow disarticulation
  • trans-humeral amputation, commonly referred to as above-elbow amputation
  • shoulder disarticulation
  • forequarter amputation

A variant of the trans-radial amputation is the Krukenberg procedure in which the radius and ulna are used to create a stump capable of a pincer action.

Other

[edit]
Partial amputation of index finger

Hemicorporectomy, or amputation at the waist, and decapitation, or amputation at the neck, are the most radical amputations.

Genital modification and mutilation may involve amputating tissue, although not necessarily as a result of injury or disease.

Self-amputation

[edit]
See also: Autotomy and Body integrity identity disorder

In some rare cases when a person has become trapped in a deserted place, with no means of communication or hope of rescue, the victim has amputated their own limb. The most notable case of this is Aron Ralston, a hiker who amputated his own right forearm after it was pinned by a boulder in a hiking accident and he was unable to free himself for over five days.[12]

Body integrity identity disorder is a psychological condition in which an individual feels compelled to remove one or more of their body parts, usually a limb. In some cases, that individual may take drastic measures to remove the offending appendages, either by causing irreparable damage to the limb so that medical intervention cannot save the limb, or by causing the limb to be severed.[13]

Urgent

[edit]

In surgery, a guillotine amputation is an amputation performed without closure of the skin in an urgent setting.[14] Typical indications include catastrophic trauma or infection control in the setting of infected gangrene.[14] A guillotine amputation is typically followed with a more time-consuming, definitive amputation such as an above or below knee amputation.[14]

Causes

[edit]

Circulatory disorders

[edit]

Neoplasm

[edit]
Transfemoral amputation due to liposarcoma

Trauma

[edit]
Three fingers from a soldier's right hand were traumatically amputated during World War I.
  • Severe limb injuries in which the efforts to save the limb fail or the limb cannot be saved.
  • Traumatic amputation (an unexpected amputation that occurs at the scene of an accident, where the limb is partially or entirely severed as a direct result of the accident, for example, a finger that is severed from the blade of a table saw)
  • Amputation in utero (Amniotic band)

Congenital anomalies

[edit]

Infection

[edit]

Frostbite

[edit]

Frostbite is a cold-related injury occurring when an area (typically a limb or other extremity)[17] is exposed to extreme low temperatures, causing the freezing of the skin or other tissues.[18] Its pathophysiology involves the formation of ice crystals upon freezing and blood clots upon thawing, leading to cell damage and cell death.[18] Treatment of severe frostbite may require surgical amputation of the affected tissue or limb;[19] if there is deep injury autoamputation may occur.[20]

Athletic performance

[edit]

Sometimes professional athletes may choose to have a non-essential digit amputated to relieve chronic pain and impaired performance.

Criminal penalties

[edit]

  • According to Quran 5:38, the punishment for stealing is the amputation of the hand. Under Sharia law, after repeated offense, the foot may also be cut off. This is still in practice today in countries like Brunei, the United Arab Emirates,[24] Iran,[25][26] Saudi Arabia,[27] Yemen,[28] and 11 of the 36 states within Nigeria.[29][30]
  • Cross-amputation is one of the Hudud punishments prescribed under Islamic jurisprudence (Sharia law) and involves cutting off the right hand and left foot of the alleged transgressor.[31][32] The scriptural authority for the double amputation procedure is in the Quran (surah 5.33-34) which stipulates:

    The punishment of those who wage war against Allah and His Messenger, and strive with might for mischief through the land is execution or crucifixion, or cutting of hands and feet from opposite sides, or exile from the land. As for the thief, male or female, cut off their hands and feet from opposite ends in recompense for what they have committed.[33]

    The severe punishment, for "highway robbery (hirabah, qat' al-tariq) and civil disturbance against Islam", is usually carried out in a single session in public, without anaesthetic and using a sword. The ancient punishment is practised in Islamic countries such as Saudi Arabia;[34] Sudan;[35] Somalia;[36] Mauritania, the Maldives;[37] Iran;[38] Taliban-era Afghanistan and Yemen.[39]
  • In 1779, Thomas Jefferson proposed a bill to the Virginia Assembly that ostensibly would have replaced capital punishment with other penalties, including amputation, for certain crimes,[40][41] although not all were really punishable by death at the time.[42] For the crimes of rape, sodomy, and polygamy (the latter removed from a later version), the punishment was to be castration for men or rhinotomy for women.[43] For intentional maiming, the bill specified literal eye for an eye retribution.[44] The bill never passed, due to the combination of its perceived barbarity in some parts and perceived leniency in others.[41][45]
  • From the 16th century, English law provided for cutting off a hand as punishment for striking someone inside a courtroom. Thomas Jefferson's punishments revision bill also intended to repeal this.[46]
  • As of 2021, this form of punishment is controversial, as most modern cultures consider it to be morally abhorrent, as it has the effect of permanently disabling a person and constitutes torture. It is thus seen as grossly disproportionate for crimes less than those such as murder.[47]

Surgery

[edit]

Method

[edit]
Curved knives such as this one were used, in the past, for some kinds of amputations.

Surgeons performing an amputation have to first ligate the supplying artery and vein, so as to prevent hemorrhage (bleeding). The muscles are transected, and finally, the bone is sawed through with an oscillating saw. Sharp and rough edges of bones are filed, skin and muscle flaps are then transposed over the stump, occasionally with the insertion of elements to attach a prosthesis.

Amputation of the leg of First Lieutenant Antônio Carlos de Mariz e Barros, commander of the Brazilian Battleship Tamandaré (Henrique Fleiuss, Semana Illustrada, 1866)

Distal stabilisation of muscles is often performed. This allows effective muscle contraction which reduces atrophy, allows functional use of the stump and maintains soft tissue coverage of the remnant bone. The preferred stabilisation technique is myodesis where the muscle is attached to the bone or its periosteum. In joint disarticulation amputations tenodesis may be used where the muscle tendon is attached to the bone. Muscles are attached under similar tension to normal physiological conditions.[48]

An experimental technique known as the "Ewing amputation" aims to improve post-amputation proprioception.[49][50] Another technique with similar goals, which has been tested in a clinical trial,[51] is Agonist-antagonist Myoneural Interface (AMI).[52]

In 1920,  Dr. Janos Ertl Sr. of Hungary, developed the Ertl procedure in order to return a high number of amputees to the work force.[53] The Ertl technique, an osteomyoplastic procedure for transtibial amputation, can be used to create a highly functional residual limb. Creation of a tibiofibular bone bridge provides a stable, broad tibiofibular articulation that may be capable of some distal weight bearing. Several different modified techniques and fibular bridge fixation methods have been used; however, no current evidence exists regarding comparison of the different techniques.[54]

Post-operative management

[edit]

A 2019 Cochrane systematic review aimed to determine whether rigid dressings were more effective than soft dressings in helping wounds heal following transtibial (below the knee) amputations. Due to the limited and very low certainty evidence available, the authors concluded that it was uncertain what the benefits and harms were for each dressing type. They recommended that clinicians consider the pros and cons of each dressing type on a case-by-case basis: rigid dressings may potentially benefit patients who have a high risk of falls; soft dressings may potentially benefit patients who have poor skin integrity.[55]

A 2017 review found that the use of rigid removable dressings (RRD's) in trans-tibial amputations, rather than soft bandaging, improved healing time, reduced edema, prevented knee flexion contractures and reduced complications, including further amputation, from external trauma such as falls onto the stump.[56]

Post-operative management, in addition to wound healing, considers maintenance of limb strength, joint range, edema management, preservation of the intact limb (if applicable) and stump desensitization.

Trauma

[edit]

Traumatic amputation is the partial or total avulsion of a part of a body during a serious accident, like traffic, labor, or combat.[57][58]

Traumatic amputation of a human limb, either partial or total, creates the immediate danger of death from blood loss.[59]

Orthopedic surgeons often assess the severity of different injuries using the Mangled Extremity Severity Score. Given different clinical and situational factors, they can predict the likelihood of amputation. This is especially useful for emergency physicians to quickly evaluate patients and decide on consultations.[60]

Causes

[edit]
Private Lewis Francis was wounded July 21, 1861, at the First Battle of Bull Run by a bayonet to the knee.

Traumatic amputation is uncommon in humans (1 per 20,804 population per year). Loss of limb usually happens immediately during the accident, but sometimes a few days later after medical complications. Statistically, the most common causes of traumatic amputations are:[61]

  • Vehicle accidents (cars, motorcycles, bicycles, trains, etc.)
  • Labor accidents (equipment, instruments, cylinders, chainsaws, press machines, meat machines, wood machines, etc.)
  • Agricultural accidents, with machines and mower equipment
  • Electric shock hazards
  • Firearms, bladed weapons, explosives
  • Violent rupture of ship rope or industry wire rope
  • Ring traction (ring amputation, de-gloving injuries)
  • Building doors and car doors
  • Animal attacks
  • Gas cylinder explosions[62]
  • Other rare accidents[63]

Treatment

[edit]

The development of the science of microsurgery over the last 40 years has provided several treatment options for a traumatic amputation, depending on the patient's specific trauma and clinical situation:[citation needed]

  • 1st choice: Surgical amputation - break - prosthesis
  • 2nd choice: Surgical amputation - transplantation of other tissue - plastic reconstruction.
  • 3rd choice: Replantation - reconnection - revascularisation of amputated limb, by microscope (after 1969)
  • 4th choice: Transplantation of cadaveric hand (after 2000)[58]

Epidemiology

[edit]
Up to 50,000 Ukrainians lost their limbs during the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[64]
  • In the United States in 1999, there were 14,420 non-fatal traumatic amputations according to the American Statistical Association. Of these, 4,435 occurred as a result of traffic and transportation accidents and 9,985 were due to labor accidents. Of all traumatic amputations, the distribution percentage is 30.75% for traffic accidents and 69.24% for labor accidents.[65][not specific enough to verify]
  • The population of the United States in 1999 was about 300,000,000, so the conclusion is that there is one amputation per 20,804 persons per year. In the group of labor amputations, 53% occurred in laborers and technicians, 30% in production and service workers, 16% in silviculture and fishery workers.[65][not specific enough to verify]
  • A study found that in 2010, 22.8% of patients undergoing amputation of a lower extremity in the United States were readmitted to the hospital within 30 days.[66]
  • In 2017, an estimated 57.7 million people globally were living with existing traumatic limb injuries. Of these 57.7 million, the leading causes of amputation "were falls (36.2%), road injuries (15.7%), other transportation injuries (11.2%), and mechanical forces (10.4%)."[67]
  • On 2 August 2023, an investigation by The Wall Street Journal found that Ukrainian medical amputations in the war came to between 20,000 and 50,000 including both military and civilians. In comparison, during World War One 41,000 British and 67,000 Germans needed amputations.[68]

Prevention

[edit]

Methods in preventing amputation, limb-sparing techniques, depend on the problems that might cause amputations to be necessary. Chronic infections, often caused by diabetes or decubitus ulcers in bedridden patients, are common causes of infections that lead to gangrene, which, when widespread, necessitates amputation.[69]

There are two key challenges: first, many patients have impaired circulation in their extremities, and second, they have difficulty curing infections in limbs with poor blood circulation.[70][71]

Crush injuries where there is extensive tissue damage and poor circulation also benefit from hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT). The high level of oxygenation and revascularization speed up recovery times and prevent infections.[72]

A study found that the patented method called Circulator Boot achieved significant results in prevention of amputation in patients with diabetes and arteriosclerosis.[73][74] Another study found it also effective for healing limb ulcers caused by peripheral vascular disease.[75] The boot checks the heart rhythm and compresses the limb between heartbeats; the compression helps cure the wounds in the walls of veins and arteries, and helps to push the blood back to the heart.[76]

For victims of trauma, advances in microsurgery in the 1970s have made replantations of severed body parts possible.

The establishment of laws, rules, and guidelines, and employment of modern equipment help protect people from traumatic amputations.[77]

Prognosis

[edit]

The individual may experience psychological trauma and emotional discomfort. The stump will remain an area of reduced mechanical stability. Limb loss can present significant or even drastic practical limitations.[78]

A large proportion of amputees (50–80%) experience the phenomenon of phantom limbs;[79] they feel body parts that are no longer there. These limbs can itch, ache, burn, feel tense, dry or wet, locked in or trapped or they can feel as if they are moving. Some scientists believe it has to do with a kind of neural map that the brain has of the body, which sends information to the rest of the brain about limbs regardless of their existence. Phantom sensations and phantom pain may also occur after the removal of body parts other than the limbs, e.g. after amputation of the breast, extraction of a tooth (phantom tooth pain) or removal of an eye (phantom eye syndrome).

A similar phenomenon is unexplained sensation in a body part unrelated to the amputated limb. It has been hypothesized that the portion of the brain responsible for processing stimulation from amputated limbs, being deprived of input, expands into the surrounding brain, (Phantoms in the Brain: V.S. Ramachandran and Sandra Blakeslee) such that an individual who has had an arm amputated will experience unexplained pressure or movement on his face or head.[80]

In many cases, the phantom limb aids in adaptation to a prosthesis, as it permits the person to experience proprioception of the prosthetic limb. To support improved resistance or usability, comfort or healing, some type of stump socks may be worn instead of or as part of wearing a prosthesis.[78]

Another side effect can be heterotopic ossification, especially when a bone injury is combined with a head injury. The brain signals the bone to grow instead of scar tissue to form, and nodules and other growth can interfere with prosthetics and sometimes require further operations. This type of injury has been especially common among soldiers wounded by improvised explosive devices in the Iraq War.[81]

Due to technological advances in prosthetics, many amputees live active lives with little restriction. Organizations such as the Challenged Athletes Foundation have been developed to give amputees the opportunity to be involved in athletics and adaptive sports such as amputee soccer.[82]

Nearly half of the individuals who have an amputation due to vascular disease will die within 5 years, usually secondary to the extensive co-morbidities rather than due to direct consequences of amputation. This is higher than the five year mortality rates for breast cancer, colon cancer, and prostate cancer.[83] Of persons with diabetes who have a lower extremity amputation, up to 55% will require amputation of the second leg within two to three years.[84]

Etymology

[edit]

The word amputation is borrowed from Latin amputātus, past participle of amputāre "to prune back (a plant), prune away, remove by cutting (unwanted parts or features), cut off (a branch, limb, body part)," from am-, assimilated variant of amb- "about, around" + putāre "to prune, make clean or tidy, scour (wool)". The English word "Poes" was first applied to surgery in the 17th century, possibly first in Peter Lowe's A discourse of the Whole Art of Chirurgerie (published in either 1597 or 1612); his work was derived from 16th-century French texts and early English writers also used the words "extirpation" (16th-century French texts tended to use extirper), "disarticulation", and "dismemberment" (from the Old French desmembrer and a more common term before the 17th century for limb loss or removal), or simply "cutting", but by the end of the 17th century "amputation" had come to dominate as the accepted medical term.[85]

Notable cases

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Fathi, Nazila (2008-01-11). "Spate of Executions and Amputations in Iran". The New York Times. Retrieved 2021-06-27.
  2. ^ Chuback, Jennifer E. (March 2005). Whitelaw, W.A. (ed.). The history of rhinoplasty. 14th Annual History of Medicine Days. Calgary, Alberta, Canada: University of Calgary. pp. 10–15 – via ResearchGate.
  3. ^ Kocharkarn W (Summer 2000). "Traumatic amputation of the penis" (PDF). Brazilian Journal of Urology. 26: 385–389. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09 – via Official Journal of the Brazilian Society of Urology.
  4. ^ Peters R (2005). Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law: Theory and Practice from the Sixteenth to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521792264.
  5. ^ Bosmia AN, Griessenauer CJ, Tubbs RS (July 2014). "Yubitsume: ritualistic self-amputation of proximal digits among the Yakuza". Journal of Injury and Violence Research. 6 (2): 54–6. doi:10.5249/jivr.v6i2.489. PMC 4009169. PMID 24284812.
  6. ^ Kepe T (March 2010). "'Secrets' that kill: crisis, custodianship and responsibility in ritual male circumcision in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa". Social Science & Medicine. 70 (5): 729–35. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.11.016. PMID 20053494.
  7. ^ Grisaru N, Lezer S, Belmaker RH (April 1997). "Ritual female genital surgery among Ethiopian Jews". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 26 (2): 211–5. doi:10.1023/a:1024562512475. PMID 9101034. S2CID 32053425.
  8. ^ "Amputator". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
  9. ^ "Amputee". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
  10. ^ Maloney, T.R.; Dilkes-Hall, I.E.; Vlok, M (2022). "Surgical amputation of a limb 31,000 years ago in Borneo". Nature. 609 (7927): 547–551. Bibcode:2022Natur.609..547M. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05160-8. PMC 9477728. PMID 36071168.
  11. ^ Pinzur MS, Stuck RM, Sage R, Hunt N, Rabinovich Z (September 2003). "Syme ankle disarticulation in patients with diabetes". The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. American Volume. 85 (9): 1667–72. doi:10.2106/00004623-200309000-00003. PMID 12954823.
  12. ^ Ransom, Cliff (24 July 2003). "Did Climber Have to Cut Off Arm to Save Life?". National Geographic. Archived from the original on January 6, 2019. Retrieved 5 January 2019.
  13. ^ Müller, Sabine (2009-01-05). "Body Integrity Identity Disorder (BIID)—Is the Amputation of Healthy Limbs Ethically Justified?". The American Journal of Bioethics. 9 (1): 36–43. doi:10.1080/15265160802588194. ISSN 1526-5161. PMID 19132621.
  14. ^ a b c Panchbhavi, Vinod K (8 June 2021). "Guillotine Ankle Amputation". Medscape.
  15. ^ Abdul W, Hickey B, Wilson C (April 2016). "Lower extremity compartment syndrome in the setting of iliofemoral deep vein thrombosis, phlegmasia cerulea dolens and factor VII deficiency". BMJ Case Reports. 2016: bcr2016215078. doi:10.1136/bcr-2016-215078. PMC 4854131. PMID 27113791.
  16. ^ Ragnarsson, Kristjan T.; Thomas, David C. (2003), "Cancer of the Limbs", Holland-Frei Cancer Medicine. 6th edition, BC Decker, retrieved 2024-01-09
  17. ^ "Frostbite". nhs.uk. 2017-10-19. Retrieved 2022-06-29.
  18. ^ a b Handford, Charles; Thomas, Owen; Imray, Christopher H. E. (2017-05-01). "Frostbite". Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America. Wilderness and Environmental Medicine. 35 (2): 281–299. doi:10.1016/j.emc.2016.12.006. ISSN 0733-8627. PMID 28411928.
  19. ^ Handford, Charles; Buxton, Pauline; Russell, Katie; Imray, Caitlin Ea; McIntosh, Scott E.; Freer, Luanne; Cochran, Amalia; Imray, Christopher He (2014). "Frostbite: a practical approach to hospital management". Extreme Physiology & Medicine. 3: 7. doi:10.1186/2046-7648-3-7. ISSN 2046-7648. PMC 3994495. PMID 24764516.
  20. ^ "Frostbite Clinical Presentation: History, Physical Examination, Complications". emedicine.medscape.com. Retrieved 2022-06-29.
  21. ^ Murray, Shane (2002-01-22). "RTE: Aussie Rules star has finger removed". RTÉ.ie. Archived from the original on 2007-12-14. Retrieved 2007-10-19.
  22. ^ Australian Rugby Union (2006-10-17). "Tawake undergoes surgery to remove finger". SportsAustralia.com. Archived from the original on 2013-05-01. Retrieved 2013-04-22.
  23. ^ Klemko, Robert (2014-06-17). "Ronnie Lott's Amputated Pinkie Finger". Sports Illustrated. Archived from the original on 2022-08-15.
  24. ^ "Burglar's hand to be amputated". gulfnews.com. 30 December 2004. Retrieved 2021-11-03.
  25. ^ "Iranian chocolate thief faces hand amputation". BBC News Online. 2010-10-17. Retrieved 2021-06-28.
  26. ^ Dovan, Fiona (2008-02-09). "Iran envoy defends amputation". The Telegraph. Retrieved 2021-06-28.
  27. ^ "Saudi Arabia chops off hand of Egyptian for theft". Monsters and Critics. 2007-11-05. Archived from the original on 2010-08-11. Retrieved 2021-06-27.
  28. ^ "Yemeni man sentenced to hand and foot amputation for armed robbery". Amnesty International. 2013-09-16. Retrieved 2021-11-03.
  29. ^ Bamford, David (2001-07-01). "Hand amputation in Nigeria". BBC News Online. Retrieved 2021-06-28.
  30. ^ Bello, Ademola (2010-06-11). "Who Will Save Amputees of Sharia Law in Nigeria?". Huffington Post. Retrieved 2021-06-28.
  31. ^ Tarabella, Marc. "Parliamentary question | VP/HR - Cross-amputation in Yemen | E-011050/2013 | European Parliament". www.europarl.europa.eu. Retrieved 2023-08-07.
  32. ^ Peters, Rudolph (2005). Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law: Theory and Practice from the Sixteenth to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. p. 166. ISBN 978-0-521-79226-4.
  33. ^ "The Quran, sura 5, verse 33". www.perseus.tufts.edu.
  34. ^ "Saudi Arabia: King urged to commute "cross amputation" sentences". Amnesty International. 2011-12-16. Retrieved 2023-08-07.
  35. ^ "Sudanese man sentenced to cross amputation for committing armed robbery – African Centre for Justice and Peace Studies".
  36. ^ Rice, Xan (20 October 2010). "Somali schoolboy tells of how Islamists cut off his leg and hand". The Guardian.
  37. ^ "Shariah Punishments in the Islamic Republics of Mauritania and Maldives, and Islamic State of Yemen". academic.oup.com.
  38. ^ Pannier, Bruce. "Criminals Lose Hands And Feet As Shari'a Law Imposed". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty.
  39. ^ Staff, Newsweek (8 July 2010). "The World's Most Barbaric Punishments". Newsweek.
  40. ^ Boyd, Julian P., ed. (1950). "Bill No. 64. A Bill for Proportioning Crimes and Punishments in Cases Heretofore Capital". The Papers of Thomas Jefferson. Vol. 2. Princeton University Press. pp. 492–507.
  41. ^ a b Wilson, Gaye (May 1999). "Bill 64". Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia. Thomas Jefferson Foundation.
  42. ^ Boyd 1950, p. 505
  43. ^ Boyd 1950, pp. 497, 506n12
  44. ^ Boyd 1950, p. 498
  45. ^ Boyd 1950, pp. 505–506
  46. ^ Boyd 1950, p. 493. Jefferson cited a work of Stamford and the Offences within the Court Act 1541 (33.H.8 c. 12).
  47. ^ "AIUK : Somalia: Amputation punishments are 'torture' says Amnesty". Archived from the original on 2013-10-03. Retrieved 2021-01-08.
  48. ^ Smith DG (2004). "Chapter 2. General principles of amputation surgery.". Atlas of Amputations and Limb Deficiencies: Surgical, Prosthetic and Rehabilitation Principles. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. pp. 21–30. ISBN 978-0892033133.
  49. ^ Springer, Shira (2018-04-13). "How The Marathon Bombing Helped Bring Innovation To Amputation". WBUR. Retrieved 2021-06-28.
  50. ^ "Jim Ewing, Dynamic-Model Amputation Patient". Brigham and Women's Faulkner Hospital. 2016-11-21. Retrieved 2021-06-28.
  51. ^ New surgery may enable better control of prosthetic limbs
  52. ^ Agonist-antagonist Myoneural Interface (AMI)
  53. ^ "Ertl Reconstruction - amputation". www.ertlreconstruction.com. Retrieved 2018-11-24.
  54. ^ Fischgrund JS (June 2016). "JAAOS Research". The Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. 24 (6): 392. doi:10.5435/jaaos-d-16-00309. PMID 27213622.
  55. ^ Kwah LK, Webb MT, Goh L, Harvey LA (June 2019). "Rigid dressings versus soft dressings for transtibial amputations". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2019 (6): CD012427. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd012427.pub2. PMC 6573094. PMID 31204792.
  56. ^ Reichmann JP, Stevens PM, Rheinstein J, Kreulen CD (May 2018). "Removable Rigid Dressings for Postoperative Management of Transtibial Amputations: A Review of Published Evidence". PM&R. 10 (5): 516–523. doi:10.1016/j.pmrj.2017.10.002. PMID 29054690. S2CID 21732925.
  57. ^ Smith DG, Skinner HB (2014). "Amputations". In Skinner HB, McMahon PJ (eds.). Current Diagnosis & Treatment in Orthopedics (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978-0-07-159075-4.
  58. ^ a b Watson N (1986). Hand Injuries and Infections. London: Gower Medical. ISBN 0906923808.
  59. ^ Ramirez C, Menaker J (2017-05-01). "Traumatic Amputations". Trauma Reports. 18 (3).
  60. ^ Johansen K, Daines M, Howey T, Helfet D, Hansen ST (May 1990). "Objective criteria accurately predict amputation following lower extremity trauma". The Journal of Trauma. 30 (5): 568–72, discussion 572–3. doi:10.1097/00005373-199005000-00007. PMID 2342140.
  61. ^ "Amputation". nhs.uk. 2017-10-17. Retrieved 2022-09-07.
  62. ^ Davison, Ben, ed. (February 2011). "Scuba Tanks as Lethal Weapons". Undercurrent. Vol. 26, no. 2. Sausalito, California. pp. 8–9. Archived from the original on 2021-04-28. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
  63. ^ Clasper, Jon; Ramasamy, Arul (2013). "Traumatic amputations". British Journal of Pain. 7 (2): 67–73. doi:10.1177/2049463713487324. ISSN 2049-4637. PMC 4590129. PMID 26516502.
  64. ^ "'A new life': Ukrainian war amputees travel to Germany for custom-made limbs". CNN. 3 June 2024.
  65. ^ a b "American Statistical Association (ASA)". www.amstat.org.
  66. ^ Weiss AJ, Elixhauser A, Steiner C (April 2013). "Readmissions to U.S. Hospitals by Procedure, 2010". HCUP Statistical Brief (154). Rockville, Maryland: U.S. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. PMID 24006552.
  67. ^ McDonald, Cody L.; Westcott-McCoy, Sarah; Weaver, Marcia R.; Haagsma, Juanita; Kartin, Deborah (2021-04-01). "Global prevalence of traumatic non-fatal limb amputation". Prosthetics and Orthotics International. 45 (2): 105–114. doi:10.1177/0309364620972258. ISSN 1746-1553. PMID 33274665.
  68. ^ Porter, Tom (2 August 2023). "Amputations in Ukraine are as widespread as in the trenches of World War I due to Russia's heavy use of mines and artillery: report". Business Insider.
  69. ^ "Gangrene". www.hopkinsmedicine.org. 2019-11-19. Retrieved 2023-10-31.
  70. ^ CDC (2023-04-07). "Preventing Diabetes-Related Amputations (Part 1)". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2023-10-31.
  71. ^ "Avoiding Amputations". Temple Health. Retrieved 2023-10-31.
  72. ^ "Hyperbaric oxygen therapy - Mayo Clinic". www.mayoclinic.org. Retrieved 2023-10-31.
  73. ^ Bouskela E, Donyo KA (May 1997). "Effects of oral administration of purified micronized flavonoid fraction on increased microvascular permeability induced by various agents and on ischemia/reperfusion in the hamster cheek pouch". Angiology. 48 (5): 391–9. doi:10.1177/000331979704800503. PMID 9158383. S2CID 28978927. Archived from the original on 2010-11-25. Retrieved 2010-06-24.
  74. ^ Dillon RS (May 1997). "Patient assessment and examples of a method of treatment. Use of the circulator boot in peripheral vascular disease". Angiology. 48 (5 Pt 2): S35–58. doi:10.1177/000331979704800504. PMID 9158380. S2CID 23512929. Archived from the original on 2010-11-25. Retrieved 2010-06-24.
  75. ^ Vella A, Carlson LA, Blier B, Felty C, Kuiper JD, Rooke TW (2000). "Circulator boot therapy alters the natural history of ischemic limb ulceration". Vascular Medicine. 5 (1): 21–5. doi:10.1177/1358836X0000500104. PMID 10737152.
  76. ^ Williams, Vivien (2008-07-11). Circulator Boot (video). Mayo Clinic News Network. Event occurs at 1:08–1:32. Retrieved 2021-06-27.
  77. ^ Roon, Anthony J.; Moore, Wesley S.; Goldstone, Jerry (1977). "Below-knee amputation: A modern approach". The American Journal of Surgery. 134 (1): 153–158. doi:10.1016/0002-9610(77)90299-9. ISSN 0002-9610. PMID 879408.
  78. ^ a b "Amputation". www.hopkinsmedicine.org. 2023-03-15. Retrieved 2023-10-31.
  79. ^ Schultz H (January 2005). "The Science of Things". National Geographic Magazine. Archived from the original on September 6, 2008.
  80. ^ MacIver, K.; Lloyd, D. M.; Kelly, S.; Roberts, N.; Nurmikko, T. (August 2008). "Phantom limb pain, cortical reorganization and the therapeutic effect of mental imagery". Brain. 131 (8): 2181–2191. doi:10.1093/brain/awn124. ISSN 0006-8950. PMC 2494616. PMID 18567624.
  81. ^ Ryan J (March 25, 2006). "War without end / Damaged soldiers start their agonizing recoveries". The San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on February 8, 2011. Retrieved June 4, 2017.
  82. ^ Hoock, Maja (September 2021). "Innovative prostheses positively change the Paralympics". WIPO. Retrieved October 30, 2023.
  83. ^ Robbins JM, Strauss G, Aron D, Long J, Kuba J, Kaplan Y (November 2008). "Mortality rates and diabetic foot ulcers: is it time to communicate mortality risk to patients with diabetic foot ulceration?". Journal of the American Podiatric Medical Association. 98 (6): 489–93. doi:10.7547/0980489. PMID 19017860. S2CID 38232703.
  84. ^ Savage PE (1983). "The diabetic foot". Problems in Peripheral Vascular Disease. Springer Netherlands. pp. 69–73. doi:10.1007/978-94-011-6648-5_12. ISBN 9789401166508.
  85. ^ Lowe, Peter (1612). A discourse of the whole art of chyrurgerie. Wherein is exactly set downe the definition, causes, accidents, prognostications, and cures of all sorts of diseases ... Wherunto is added the rule of making remedies which chirurgions doe commonly use: with the Presages of divine Hyppocrates. Wellcome Library. London : Thomas Purfoot.

Further reading

[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amputation&oldid=1248509035#Surgery"