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Abu Hanifa

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Imam
Abu Hanifa
أَبُو حَنِيفَة
Title
  • Shaykh al-Islam ('Shaykh of Islam')
  • Al-Imam al-A'zam ('the Greatest Imam')
  • Siraj al-A'imma ('Lamp of the Imams')
Personal
BornSeptember 699 CE (Rajab 80 AH)
Kufa, Umayyad Caliphate (modern-day Iraq)
Died767 CE (150 AH; aged 68–70)
Baghdad, Abbasid Caliphate (modern-day Iraq)
Resting placeAbu Hanifa Mosque, Baghdad, Iraq
ReligionIslam
Children
  • Hammad
  • Hanifa[1]
EraLate Umayyad – early Abbasid
RegionKufa[2]
DenominationSunni
JurisprudenceIndependent (eponym of the Hanafi school)
Main interest(s)
Notable idea(s)
Notable work(s)
Occupation
Arabic name
Personal
(Ism)		Al-Nuʿmān
ٱلنُّعْمَان
Patronymic
(Nasab)		Ibn Thābit ibn Zūṭā ibn Marzubān
ٱبْن ثَابِت بْن زُوطَا بْن مَرْزُبَان
Teknonymic
(Kunya)		Abū Ḥanīfa
أَبُو حَنِيفَة
Toponymic
(Nisba)		Al-Taymī al-Kūfī
ٱلتَّيْمِيّ ٱلْكُوفِيّ
Muslim leader
Influenced by
Influenced

Abu Hanifa[a] (Arabic: أَبُو حَنِيفَة, romanized: Abū Ḥanīfa; September 699–767)[5] was a Muslim scholar, jurist, theologian, ascetic,[3] and eponym of the Hanafi school of Sunni jurisprudence, which remains the most widely practiced to this day.[3] His school predominates in Central and South Asia, Turkey, the Balkans, Russia, and some parts of the Arab world.[6][7]

Born to a Muslim family in Kufa,[3] Abu Hanifa traveled to the Hejaz region of Arabia in his youth, where he studied in the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina.[3] He was named by al-Dhahabi as "one of the geniuses of the sons of Adam" who "combined jurisprudence, worship, scrupulousness, and generosity".[8]

As his career as a jurist and theologian progressed, he became known for favoring the use of reason in his jurisprudential rulings, and even in his theology.[3] His school grew after his death, and the majority of its followers would also eventually come to follow the Maturidi school of theology.[3] He left behind two major students, Abu Yusuf and Muhammad al-Shaybani, who would later become celebrated jurists in their own right.

Name

[edit]

How Abu Hanifa earned his name is disputed. According to some linguists, including Muhyi al-Din, ḥanīfa refers to "inkpot" in Abu Hanifa's dialect. He was often seen with one, thus earning his name this way.[1] According to this interpretation, his name literally means the "Father of the Inkpot".

However, some historians contest he earned it as he had a daughter named Hanifa.[1] His name would then mean the "Father of Hanifa". The opposing side believes he never had a daughter with such name.

Biography

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Family background

[edit]

Historians generally agree Abu Hanifa was born in Kufa during the period of the Umayyad Caliphate, but they differ regarding the year: 699 CE / 80 AH,[9][10] 696 CE / 77 AH,[11] 689 CE / 70 AH,[12] or 680 CE / 61 AH.[13] Many historians choose the latest date, 699 CE / 80 AH; however, Muhammad Zahid al-Kawthari, adjunct to the office of the last Elder of Islam of the Ottoman Empire, believed the date of 689 CE / 70 AH is supported by two considerations.[citation needed] First, Muhammad ibn Makhlad al-Attar considered the narration of Abu Hanifa's son, Hammad, from Malik ibn Anas to be an example of an older man's narration rather than a younger man. Second, Abu Hanifa was concerned with who should succeed Ibrahim al-Nakha'i after his death in 96 AH. This concern would have only arisen if he was older than 19, since it is considered he only took his religious studies seriously after then. If Abu Hanifa was born in 80 AH, Abu Hanifa would have been 16 at the time of al-Nakhai's death.[13]

Abu Hanifa is thought to be of Persian ancestry.[4][14] However, he has also been stated to have descended from the Zutt, Jats who migrated into Iraq during the Islamic Golden Age.[15][16][17] His grandfather, Zuta, may have been captured by Muslim troops in Kabul and sold as a slave in Kufa, where he was purchased and freed by an Arab tribesman of the Taym Allah, a branch of the Banu Bakr. Zuta and his progeny thereafter would have become clients of the Taym Allah, hence the sporadic references to Abu Hanifa as "al-Taymi".[18] According to his grandson Isma'il, however, his lineage went back to free Persians who had never been held as slaves. He called Abu Hanifa's great-grandfather "Marzuban", which is an Arabicized form of the Sasanian military office of marzban, held by governors of the frontier provinces of the Sasanian realm.[5]

Early life and scholarship

[edit]

There is scant biographical information about Abu Hanifa. It is generally known that he worked a producer and seller of khazz, a type of silk clothing material. He attended lectures on jurisprudence conducted by the Kufan scholar Hammad ibn Abi Sulayman (d. 737).[18] He also possibly learnt jurisprudence (fiqh) from the Meccan scholar Ata ibn Abi Rabah (d. c. 733) while on pilgrimage.

When Hammad died, Abu Hanifa succeeded him as the principal authority on Islamic law in Kufa and the chief representative of the Kufan school of jurisprudence.[18] Abu Hanifa gradually gained influence as an authority on legal questions, founding a moderate rationalist school of Islamic jurisprudence that was named after him.[7]

Adulthood and death

[edit]
Abu Hanifa Mosque in Baghdad, Iraq

In 763, al-Mansur, the Abbasid caliph offered Abu Hanifa the post of qadi al-qudat (chief judge of the state), but he declined the offer, choosing to remain independent. His student Abu Yusuf was later appointed to the post by Caliph Harun al-Rashid.[19]

In his reply to al-Mansur, Abu Hanifa said that he was not fit for the post. Al-Mansur, who had his own ideas and reasons for offering the post accused Abu Hanifa of lying.

"If I am lying," Abu Hanifa responded, "then my statement is doubly correct. How can you appoint a liar to the exalted post of a qadi?"

Incensed by this reply, al-Mansur had Abu Hanifa arrested, locked in prison and tortured. It was said that once in prison he was never fed nor cared for.[20] Even in prison, the jurist continued to teach those who were permitted to visit him.

On 15 Rajab 150,[21] (15 August 767[22]) Abu Hanifa died in prison. The cause of his death is not clear, as it was said by some that Abu Hanifa issued a legal opinion for bearing arms against al-Mansur, so al-Mansur had him poisoned.[23] His fellow prisoner and founder of Karaite Judaism, Anan ben David, was said to have received life-saving counsel from Abu Hanifa.[24] It was said that so many people attended his funeral that the funeral service was repeated six times for the more than 50,000 people who had massed before he was actually buried. The historian al-Khatib said that for a full 20 days people performed funeral prayers for him. Many years later, the Abu Hanifa Mosque was built in the Adhamiyah neighbourhood of Baghdad. Abu Hanifa also supported the cause of Zayd ibn Ali and Ibrahim al Qamar, both Alid Zaydi Imams.

The structures of the tombs of Abu Hanifa and Abdul Qadir Gilani were destroyed by Shah Ismail of the Safavid Empire in 1508.[25] In 1533, the Ottomans conquered Baghdad and rebuilt the tombs of Abu Hanifa and Abdul Qadir, as well as other Sunni sites.[26]

Sources and methodology

[edit]

The sources from which Abu Hanifa derived Islamic law, in order of importance and preference, were: the Qur'an, the authentic narrations of the Muslim prophet Muhammad (known as hadith), consensus of the Muslim community (ijma'), analogical reasoning (qiyas), juristic discretion (istihsan) and the customs of the local population enacting Muslim laws ('urf).[27] The development of analogical reason and the scope and boundaries by which it may be used was recognized by the majority of Muslim jurists, but its establishment as a legal tool was the result of the Hanafi school. While it was likely used by some of his teachers, Abu Hanifa is regarded by modern scholarship as the first to formally adopt and institute analogical reason as a part of Islamic law.[28]

As the fourth Caliph, Ali had transferred the Islamic capital to Kufa, and many of the first generation of Muslims had settled there. The Hanafi school of law based many of its rulings on the prophetic tradition as transmitted by those first generation Muslims residing in Iraq. Thus, the Hanafi school came to be known as the Kufan or Iraqi school. Ali and Abdullah, son of Masud helped form much of the base of the school, as well as other personalities from the direct relatives (or ahl al-bayt) of Muḥammad from whom Abu Hanifa had studied such as Muhammad al-Baqir. Many jurists and historians had reportedly lived in Kufa, including one of Abu Hanifa's main teachers, Hammad ibn Abi Sulayman.[29][30]

Reception

[edit]
Map of the Muslim world. Hanafism (grass green) is the predominant school in Central and South Asia, the northern Middle East, and the Balkans.

Positive

[edit]

He was highly regarded across the various fields of sacred knowledge and significantly influenced the development of Muslim theology.[31] During his lifetime, he was acknowledged as a jurist of the highest calibre.[32] The Shafi'i and prominent hadith scholar, Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, stated that criticism of Abu Hanifa holds no significance, as figures like Abu Hanifa are "on a degree to which Allah - the Exalted - has raised them, in that they are followed and imitated." [33]

Ibn Taymiyya credited Abu Hanifa for his knowledge and addressed the accusations against him, stating, “There is no doubt regarding Imam Abu Hanifa's knowledge. People later attributed many lies to Imam Abu Hanifa, which were all untrue. The aim of such writings was to taint Imam Abu Hanifa” [34] His students, Ibn Kathir and al-Dhahabi, held similar opinions about Abu Hanifa, extensively rebuking accusations against him and praising his contributions.[35][36]

He received the honorific title al-Imam al-A'zam ("the highly venerated Imām")[37] and his tomb, surmounted by a dome erected by admirers in 1066 is still a shrine for pilgrims.[38] It was restored in 1535 by Suleiman the Magnificent after the Ottoman conquest of Baghdad.[26]

Negative

[edit]

Abu Hanifa also had his critics. He was perceived by al-Shafi'i, Ibn Abi Shaybah, Muhammad al-Bukhari and Ibn Sa'd and to be a heretic and in opposition to the instructions of Muhammad, and al-Bukhari's teacher, al-Humaydi, was one of the first to pen a refutation of his Abu Hanifa's thought.[39] The Zahiri scholar Ibn Hazm quoted Sufyan ibn `Uyaynah: "The affairs of men were in harmony until they were changed by Abù Hanìfa in Kùfa, al-Batti in Basra and Màlik in Medina".[40] Early Muslim jurist Hammad ibn Salamah once related a story about a highway robber who posed as an old man to hide his identity; he then remarked that were the robber still alive he would be a follower of Abu Hanifa.[41]

Today

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Today, the Hanafi school is followed by 45% of Muslims[42] and Abu Hanifa is popularly known amongst Sunni Muslims as a man of the highest personal qualities: a performer of good works, remarkable for his self-denial, humble spirit, devotion and pious awe of God.[43]

Generational status

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Abu Hanifa is regarded by some authorities as one of the tabi‘un, the generation after the sahaba, who were the companions of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. This is based on reports that he met at least four sahaba including Anas ibn Malik,[44] with some even reporting that he transmitted hadith from him and other companions of Muhammad.[45][46] Others take the view that Abu Hanifa only saw around half a dozen companions, possibly at a young age, and did not directly narrate hadith from them.[45]

Abu Hanifa was born at least 60 years after the death of Muhammad, but during the time of the first generation of Muslims, some of whom lived on until Abu Hanifa's youth. Anas ibn Malik, Muhammad's personal attendant, died in 93 AH and another companion, Abul Tufail Amir bin Wathilah, died in 100 AH, when Abu Hanifa was at least 20 years old. The author of al-Khairat al-Hisan collected information from books of biographies and cited the names of Muslims of the first generation from whom it was reported that the Abu Hanifa had transmitted hadith. He counted 16 of them, including Anas ibn Malik, Jabir ibn Abd-Allah and Sahl ibn Sa'd.[47]

Students

[edit]

Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Mizzi listed 97 hadith scholars who were his students. Most of them went on to be hadith scholars, and their narrated hadiths were compiled in the Sahih al-Bukhari, Sahih Muslim and other books of hadith.[48] Imām Badr al-Din al-Ayni included another 260 students who studied hadith and fiqh with Abu Hanifa.[49]

His most famous students were Imām Abu Yusuf, who served as the first chief justice in the Muslim world, and Imām Muhammad al-Shaybani, who was the teacher of the Shafi‘i school of jurisprudence founder, Imām Al-Shafi‘i. His other students included Abdullah ibn Mubarak and Fudhayl bin Iyaadh[50]

Character and appearance

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Al-Nadr ibn Muhammad recalled Abu Hanifa had "a beautiful face, beautiful clothing, and fragrant scent."[51]

His student Abu Yusuf described him as "well-formed, from the best of people in appearance, most eloquent in speech, sweetest in tone, and clearest in expressing his thoughts."[51]

His son Hammad described him as "very handsome, dark-skinned, having good posture, wearing much cologne, tall, not speaking except in reply to someone else, and not involving himself in what did not concern him."[51]

Ibn al-Mubarak remarked he "never saw a man more revered in gatherings, nor better in character and forbearance, than Abu Hanifa."[51]

Connection with the family of Muhammad

[edit]
See also: Ahl al-Bayt and Banu Hashim
Early Islamic scholars
Muhammad, The final Messenger of God(570–632 the Constitution of Medina, taught the Quran, and advised his companions
Abdullah ibn Masud (died 653) taughtAli (607–661) fourth caliph taughtAisha, Muhammad's wife and Abu Bakr's daughter taughtAbd Allah ibn Abbas (618–687) taughtZayd ibn Thabit (610–660) taughtUmar (579–644) second caliph taughtAbu Hurairah (603–681) taught
Alqama ibn Qays (died 681) taughtHusayn ibn Ali (626–680) taughtQasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr (657–725) taught and raised by AishaUrwah ibn Zubayr (died 713) taught by Aisha, he then taughtSaid ibn al-Musayyib (637–715) taughtAbdullah ibn Umar (614–693) taughtAbd Allah ibn al-Zubayr (624–692) taught by Aisha, he then taught
Ibrahim al-Nakha’i taughtAli ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin (659–712) taughtHisham ibn Urwah (667–772) taughtIbn Shihab al-Zuhri (died 741) taughtSalim ibn Abd-Allah ibn Umar taughtUmar ibn Abdul Aziz (682–720) raised and taught by Abdullah ibn Umar
Hammad bin ibi Sulman taughtMuhammad al-Baqir (676–733) taughtFarwah bint al-Qasim Jafar's mother
Abu Hanifa (699–767) wrote Al Fiqh Al Akbar and Kitab Al-Athar, jurisprudence followed by Sunni, Sunni Sufi, Barelvi, Deobandi, Zaidiyyah and originally by the Fatimid and taughtZayd ibn Ali (695–740)Ja'far bin Muhammad Al-Baqir (702–765) Muhammad and Ali's great great grand son, jurisprudence followed by Shia, he taughtMalik ibn Anas (711–795) wrote Muwatta, jurisprudence from early Medina period now mostly followed by Sunni in Africa, Sunni Sufi and taughtAl-Waqidi (748–822) wrote history books like Kitab al-Tarikh wa al-Maghazi, student of Malik ibn AnasAbu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam (died 829) wrote biographies and history books, student of Malik ibn Anas
Abu Yusuf (729–798) wrote Usul al-fiqhMuhammad al-Shaybani (749–805)al-Shafi‘i (767–820) wrote Al-Risala, jurisprudence followed by Sunni, Sunni sufi and taughtIsmail ibn IbrahimAli ibn al-Madini (778–849) wrote The Book of Knowledge of the CompanionsIbn Hisham (died 833) wrote early history and As-Sirah an-Nabawiyyah, Muhammad's biography
Isma'il ibn Ja'far (719–775)Musa al-Kadhim (745–799)Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855) wrote Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal jurisprudence followed by Sunni, Sunni sufi and hadith booksMuhammad al-Bukhari (810–870) wrote Sahih al-Bukhari hadith booksMuslim ibn al-Hajjaj (815–875) wrote Sahih Muslim hadith booksDawud al-Zahiri (815–883/4) founded the Zahiri schoolMuhammad ibn Isa at-Tirmidhi (824–892) wrote Jami` at-Tirmidhi hadith booksAl-Baladhuri (died 892) wrote early history Futuh al-Buldan, Genealogies of the Nobles
Ibn Majah (824–887) wrote Sunan ibn Majah hadith bookAbu Dawood (817–889) wrote Sunan Abu Dawood Hadith Book
Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni (864- 941) wrote Kitab al-Kafi hadith book followed by Twelver ShiaMuhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838–923) wrote History of the Prophets and Kings, Tafsir al-TabariAbu Hasan al-Ash'ari (874–936) wrote Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn, Kitāb al-luma, Kitāb al-ibāna 'an usūl al-diyāna
Ibn Babawayh (923–991) wrote Man La Yahduruhu al-Faqih jurisprudence followed by Twelver ShiaSharif Razi (930–977) wrote Nahj al-Balagha followed by Twelver ShiaNasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) wrote jurisprudence books followed by Ismaili and Twelver ShiaAl-Ghazali (1058–1111) wrote The Niche for Lights, The Incoherence of the Philosophers, The Alchemy of Happiness on SufismRumi (1207–1273) wrote Masnavi, Diwan-e Shams-e Tabrizi on Sufism
Key: Some of Muhammad's CompanionsKey: Taught in MedinaKey: Taught in IraqKey: Worked in SyriaKey: Travelled extensively collecting the sayings of Muhammad and compiled books of hadithKey: Worked in Persia

As with Malik ibn Anas (who was a teacher of Imam al-Shafi'i,[52][53]: 121  who in turn was a teacher of Sunni Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal), Imam Abu Hanifa was a student of Ja'far al-Sadiq, who was a descendant of the Islamic nabi (prophet) Muhammad. Thus all of the four great Imams of Sunni fiqh are connected to Ja'far from the bayt (household) of Muhammad, whether directly or indirectly.[54]

In one hadith, Abu Hanifa once said about Imam Ja'far: "I have not seen anyone with more knowledge than Ja'far ibn Muhammad."[55] However, in another hadith, Abu Hanifa said: "I met with Zayd (Ja'far's uncle) and I never saw in his generation a person more knowledgeable, as quick a thinker, or more eloquent than he was."[56]

Opposition to anthropomorphism

[edit]

Imam Abu Hanifa was quoted as saying that Jahm ibn Safwan (d. 128/745) went so far in his denial of anthropomorphism (Tashbih) as to declare that 'God is not something (Allah laysa bi shay')'. Muqatil ibn Sulayman (d. 150/767), likened God to His creatures.[57]

Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi narrated in his Tarikh Baghdad (History of Baghdad) that Imam Abu Hanifa said:

Two groups of the worst of people are from Khurasan: the Jahmiyyah (followers of Jahm ibn Safwan) and the Mushabbihah (antropomorphists), and he probably said (instead of Mushabbihah) "Muqatiliyyah" (followers of Muqatil ibn Sulayman).[58][59][60]

Footnotes

[edit]
  1. ^ Full name Abū Ḥanīfa al-Nuʿmān ibn Thābit ibn Zūṭā ibn Marzubān al-Taymī al-Kūfī (Arabic: أَبُو حَنِيفَة ٱلنُّعْمَان بْن ثَابِت بْن زُوطَا بْن مَرْزُبَان ٱلتَّيْمِيّ ٱلْكُوفِيّ); he is also known by the titles Shaykh al-Islam ('Shaykh of Islam'), al-Imam al-A'zam ('the Greatest Imam'), and Siraj al-A'imma ('Lamp of the Imams').[3][4]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c "imamAbuhanifah". muftisays. May 19, 2006. Retrieved January 21, 2024.
  2. ^ A.C. Brown, Jonathan (2014). Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy. Oneworld Publications. pp. 24–5. ISBN 978-1780744209.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Pakatchi, Ahmad and Umar, Suheyl, "Abū Ḥanīfa", in: Encyclopaedia Islamica, Editors-in-Chief: Wilferd Madelung and, Farhad Daftary.
  4. ^ a b S. H. Nasr (1975), "The religious sciences", in R.N. Frye, The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4, Cambridge University Press. p.474: "Abū Ḥanīfah, who is often called the "grand imam"(al-Imam al-'Azam) was Persian
  5. ^ a b ABŪ ḤANĪFA, Encyclopædia Iranica
  6. ^ Nazeer Ahmed (2001). Islam in Global History: Volume One: From the Death of Prophet Muhammed to the First World War. Xlibris Corporation. p. 113. ISBN 9781462831302.
  7. ^ a b Ludwig W. Adamec (2012). Historical Dictionary of Afghanistan. Scarecrow Press. p. 17. ISBN 9780810878150.
  8. ^ Al-Dhahabi. Al-Ibar fi Khabar man Ghabar. Vol. 1. p. 164.
  9. ^ Çakmak, Cenap (May 18, 2017). Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-61069-217-5.
  10. ^ Suwaidan, Dr. Tareq Al. Imam Abu Hanifa an-Nu'man. الابداع الفكري. Abu Hanifa, may God have mercy on him, was born in Kufa in 80 AH, as the preponderant opinion states. This is what al-Khattab mentioned in his narration of Isma'il, Abu Hanifa's grandson, ...
  11. ^ Ibn Abd al-Barr. Jami' Bayan al-Ilm wa-Fadlih.
  12. ^ Ibn Hibban. al-Jarh wa-l-Ta'dil.
  13. ^ a b adh-Dhahabi. The Virtues of Imam Abu Hanifa. Visions of Reality Publishing. pp. 9–10.
  14. ^ Cyril Glasse, "The New Encyclopedia of Islam", Published by Rowman & Littlefield, 2008. p.23: "Abu Hanifah, a Persian, was one of the great jurists of Islam and one of the historic Sunni Mujtahids"
  15. ^ Schacht; Lewis; Pellat, eds. (1998). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. II (C-G). Brill. p. 489. ISBN 978-90-04-07026-4. Abu Hanīfa was also of Zuṭṭ stock, his grandfather being known as Zūṭi, apparently a corruption of Zuṭṭi.
  16. ^ Wink, André (1991). Al-hind: The Making of the Indo-islamic World. BRILL. p. 161. ISBN 978-90-04-09249-5. Some Jat freemen became famous in the Islamic world, as for instance Abu Hanifa ( 699-767 ? )
  17. ^ Malik, Jamal (2020). Islam in South Asia: Revised, Enlarged and Updated Second Edition. BRILL. p. 44. ISBN 978-90-04-42271-1. ...Abu Hanifa (699–767), the founder of the Hanafi school of law, who was of Jat stock, most likely descending from those early prisoners sent to Iraq.
  18. ^ a b c Schacht 1960, p. 123.
  19. ^ "Oxford Islamic Studies Online". Abu Yusuf. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on April 5, 2016.
  20. ^ Ya'qubi, vol. III, p.86; Muruj al-dhahab, vol. III, pp. 268–270.
  21. ^ Ammar, Abu (2001). "Criticism levelled against Imam Abu Hanifah". Understanding the Ahle al-Sunnah: Traditional Scholarship & Modern Misunderstandings. Islamic Information Centre. Retrieved June 13, 2018.
  22. ^ "Islamic Hijri Calendar For Rajab – 150 Hijri". habibur.com. Retrieved June 13, 2018.
  23. ^ Najeebabadi, Akbar S. (2001). The History of Islam. vol, 2. Darussalam Press. pp. 287. ISBN 9960-892-88-3.
  24. ^ Nemoy, Leon. (1952). Karaite Anthology: Excerpts from the Early Literature. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. pp. 4–5. ISBN 0-300-00792-2.
  25. ^ Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire
  26. ^ a b Burak, Guy (2015). The Second Formation of Islamic Law: The Ḥanafī School in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-107-09027-9.
  27. ^ "Hanafi school | Definition & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved June 11, 2024.
  28. ^ See:
    *Reuben Levy, Introduction to the Sociology of Islam, pg. 236–237. London: Williams and Norgate, 1931–1933.
    *Chiragh Ali, The Proposed Political, Legal and Social Reforms. Taken from Modernist Islam 1840–1940: A Sourcebook, pg. 280. Edited by Charles Kurzman. New York City: Oxford University Press, 2002.
    *Mansoor Moaddel, Islamic Modernism, Nationalism, and Fundamentalism: Episode and Discourse, pg. 32. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005.
    *Keith Hodkinson, Muslim Family Law: A Sourcebook, pg. 39. Beckenham: Croom Helm Ltd., Provident House, 1984.
    *Understanding Islamic Law: From Classical to Contemporary, edited by Hisham Ramadan, pg. 18. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006.
    *Christopher Roederrer and Darrel Moellendorf [de], Jurisprudence, pg. 471. Lansdowne: Juta and Company Ltd., 2007.
    *Nicolas Aghnides, Islamic Theories of Finance, pg. 69. New Jersey: Gorgias Press LLC, 2005.
    *Kojiro Nakamura, "Ibn Mada's Criticism of Arab Grammarians." Orient, v. 10, pgs. 89–113. 1974
  29. ^ Nadwi, Sayyid Ijteba. Nuqoosh-e-Tabinda. (in Urdu) (1994 First ed). Jamia Nagar: Dar Irnaws p. 254
  30. ^ "The Leading Fiqh Scholars (Founders of the four schools of Fiqh)". April 20, 2017.
  31. ^ Magill, Frank Northen (January 1, 1998). Dictionary of World Biography: The Middle Ages. Routledge. p. 17. ISBN 9781579580414.
  32. ^ Hallaq, Wael B. (January 1, 2005). The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law. Cambridge University Press. p. 159. ISBN 9780521005807.
  33. ^ as-Sakhawi, Shams ad-Deen (1999). al-Jawahir wa al-Durar fi Tarjama Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Hajr. Dar Ibn Hazm, Beirut. pp. vol.2 pp.946–947.
  34. ^ Ibn Taymiyya. Minhaj as-Sunna An-Nabawiyya. pp. vol.1, page 259.
  35. ^ Ibn Kathir. Al-Bidāya wa l-Nihāya.
  36. ^ adh-Dhahabi. Tadhkira al-Huffaz.
  37. ^ Houtsma, M. Th (January 1, 1993). E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936. BRILL. p. 840. ISBN 9004097902.
  38. ^ Magill, Frank Northen (January 1, 1998). Dictionary of World Biography: The Middle Ages. Routledge. p. 18. ISBN 9781579580414.
  39. ^ Khan, Ahmad (2023). Heresy and the formation of medieval Islamic orthodoxy: the making of Sunnism, from the eighth to the eleventh century. Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp. 27–37, 45–46, 57–68. ISBN 978-1-009-09837-3.
  40. ^ Camilla Adang, "This Day I have Perfected Your Religion For You: A Zahiri Conception of Religious Authority," p.33. Taken from Speaking for Islam: Religious Authorities in Muslim Societies. Ed. Gudrun Krämer and Sabine Schmidtke. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2006
  41. ^ Ignác Goldziher, The Zahiris, pg. 15. Volume 3 of Brill Classics in Islam. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2008. ISBN 9789004162419
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Sources

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Online

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