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This article is about the college admission test in the United States. For the company which administers this test, see ACT, Inc.

ACT
TypePaper-based and computer-based standardized test
AdministratorACT, Inc.
Skills testedEnglish, math, reading, science (optional), writing (optional).
PurposeUndergraduate admissions (mostly in the US and Canadian universities or colleges).
Year started1959; 65 years ago (1959)
DurationEnglish: 45 minutes,
Math: 60 minutes,
Reading: 35 minutes,
Science: 35 minutes,
Non-Graded Test: 20 minutes,
Optional writing test: 40 minutes.
Total: 3 hours and 55 minutes (excluding breaks).[1]
Score rangeComposite score: 1 to 36,
Subscore (for each of the four subject areas): 1 to 36.
(All in 1-point increments.)[2]
Optional Writing Score: 2 to 12. (Sum of two graders’ scoring from 1-6)
OfferedUS and Canada: 7 times a year.[3]
Other countries: 5 times a year.[4]
RegionsWorldwide[5][6]
LanguagesEnglish
Annual number of test takersIncrease Over 1.38 million high school graduates in the class of 2023[7]
PrerequisitesNo official prerequisite. Intended for high school students. Fluency in English assumed.
FeeWithout writing: US$63.00 as of 2022.
With writing: US$88.00 as of 2022. Outside US: $108.50 surcharge as of 2021 in addition to the above amounts.[8] (Fee waivers are available for 11th or 12th grade students who are US citizens or testing in the US or US territories, and have demonstrated financial need.[9])
Used byColleges or universities offering undergraduate programs (mostly in the US and Canada).
Websitewww.act.org

The ACT (/eɪ siː tiː/; originally an abbreviation of American College Testing)[10] is a standardized test used for college admissions in the United States. It is administered by ACT, Inc., a for-profit organization of the same name.[10] The ACT test covers four academic skill areas: English, mathematics, reading, and scientific reasoning. It also offers an optional direct writing test. It is accepted by all four-year colleges and universities in the United States as well as more than 225 universities outside of the U.S.

The main four ACT test sections are individually scored on a scale of 1–36, and a composite score (the rounded whole number average of the four sections) is provided.[11]

The ACT was first introduced in November 1959 by University of Iowa professor Everett Franklin Lindquist as a competitor to the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT).[12] The ACT originally consisted of four tests: English, Mathematics, Social Studies, and Natural Sciences. In 1989, however, the Social Studies test was changed into a Reading section (which included a social sciences subsection), and the Natural Sciences test was renamed the Science Reasoning test, with more emphasis on problem-solving skills as opposed to memorizing scientific facts.[13] In February 2005, an optional Writing Test was added to the ACT. By the fall of 2017, computer-based ACT tests were available for school-day testing in limited school districts of the US, with greater availability expected in fall of 2018.[14] In July 2024, the ACT announced that the test duration was shortened; the science section, like the writing one, would become optional; and online testing would be rolled out nationally in spring 2025 and for school-day testing in spring 2026.[15]

Historical Number of SAT and ACT Test Takers

The ACT has seen a gradual increase in the number of test takers since its inception, and in 2012 the ACT surpassed the SAT for the first time in total test takers; that year, 1,666,017 students took the ACT and 1,664,479 students took the SAT.[16]

Function

[edit]

ACT, Inc., says that the ACT assessment measures high school students' general educational development and their capability to complete college-level work with the multiple choice tests covering four skill areas: English, mathematics, reading, and science. The optional Writing Test measures skill in planning and writing a short essay.[17] Specifically, ACT states that its scores provide an indicator of "college readiness", and that scores in each of the subtests correspond to skills in entry-level college courses in English, algebra, social science, humanities, and biology.[18] According to a research study conducted by ACT, Inc. in 2003, there was a relationship between a student's ACT composite score and the probability of that student earning a college degree.[19]

To develop the test, ACT incorporates the objectives for instruction from middle and high schools throughout the United States, reviews approved textbooks for subjects taught in Grades 7–12, and surveys educators on which knowledge skills are relevant to success in postsecondary education. ACT publishes a technical manual that summarizes studies conducted on its validity in predicting freshman GPA, equating different high school GPAs, and measuring educational achievement.[20]

Colleges use the ACT and the SAT because there are substantial differences in funding, curricula, grading, and difficulty among U.S. secondary schools due to American federalism, local control, the prevalence of private, distance, homeschooled students, and lack of a rigorous college entrance examination system similar those used in some other countries. ACT scores are used to supplement the secondary school record and help admission officers put local data—such as coursework, grades, and class rank—in a national perspective.[21][citation needed]

The majority of colleges do not indicate a preference for the SAT or ACT exams and accept both, being treated equally by most admissions officers.[22] According to "Uni in the USA," colleges that also require students to take the SAT Subject Tests do so regardless of whether the candidate took the SAT or ACT;[22] however, some colleges accept the ACT in place of the SAT subject tests[23] and some accept the optional ACT Writing section in place of an SAT Subject Test.[24]

Most colleges use ACT scores as only one factor in the admission process. A sampling of ACT admissions scores shows that the 75th percentile composite score was 24.1 at public four-year institutions and 25.3 at private four-year institutions.

In addition, some states and individual school districts have used the ACT to assess student learning and/or the performance of schools, requiring all high school students to take the ACT, regardless of whether they are college bound. Colorado and Illinois were the first to incorporate the ACT as part of their mandatory testing program in 2001. Other states followed suit in subsequent years. During the 2018–2019 school year, 13 states will administer the ACT test to all public school 11th graders, and another six states will fund ACT test administration as an option or choice for districts.

While the exact manner in which ACT scores will help to determine admission of a student at American institutions of higher learning is generally a matter decided by the individual institution, some foreign countries have made ACT (and SAT) scores a legal criterion in deciding whether holders of American high school diplomas will be admitted at their public universities.

This map of the United States shows the states in which more seniors in the class of 2022 took the SAT than the ACT (colored in blue), and the states in which more seniors took the ACT than the SAT (colored in red).

The ACT is more widely used in the Midwestern, Rocky Mountain, and Southern United States, whereas the SAT is more popular on the East and West coasts. Recently, however, the ACT is being used more on the East Coast.[25] Use of the ACT by colleges has risen as a result of various criticisms of the effectiveness and fairness of the SAT.

Format

[edit]

The required portion of the ACT is divided into four multiple-choice subject tests: English, mathematics, reading, and science reasoning. Subject test scores range from 1 to 36; all scores are integers. The English, mathematics, and reading tests also have subscores ranging from 1 to 18 (the subject score is not the sum of the subscores). In addition, students taking the optional writing test receive a writing score ranging from 2 to 12 (this is a change from the previous 1–36 score range); the writing score does not affect the composite score. Prior to September 2015, there was a Combined English/Writing score, which was a 36-point combination of the 36-point English Test score and the 12-point Writing subscore.[26] The ACT has eliminated the Combined English/writing score and has added two new combined scores: ELA (an average of the English, Reading, and Writing scores) and STEM (an average of the Math and Science scores).[27][28] These changes for the writing, ELA, and STEM scores were effective starting with the September 2015 test.[29]

Each question answered correctly is worth one raw point, and there is no penalty for marking incorrect answers on the multiple-choice parts of the test; a student can answer all questions without a decrease in their score due to incorrect answers. This is parallel to several AP Tests eliminating the penalties for incorrect answers. To improve the result, students can retake the test: 55% of students who retake the ACT improve their scores, 22% score the same, and 23% see their scores decrease.[30]

English

[edit]

The first section is the 45-minute English test covering usage/mechanics, sentence structure, and rhetorical skills. The 75-question test consists of five passages with various sections underlined on one side of the page and options to correct the underlined portions on the other side of the page. Specifically, questions focus on usage and mechanics – issues such as commas, apostrophes, (misplaced/dangling) modifiers, colons, and fragments and run-ons – as well as on rhetorical skills – style (clarity and brevity), strategy, transitions, and organization (sentences in a paragraph and paragraphs in a passage) – and sentence structure – constructing sentences in a stylistically and grammatically correct manner.

Math

[edit]

The second section is a 60-minute, 60-question math test with the usual distribution of questions being approximately 14 covering pre-algebra, 10 elementary algebra, 9 intermediate algebra, 14 plane geometry, 9 coordinate geometry, and 4 elementary trigonometry questions.[31] However, the distribution of question topics varies from test to test. The difficulty of questions usually increases as a test taker moves on to higher question numbers. Calculators are permitted in this section only. The calculator requirements are stricter than the SAT's in that computer algebra systems (such as the TI-89) are not allowed; however, the ACT permits calculators with paper tapes, that make noise (but must be disabled), or that have power cords with certain "modifications" (i.e., disabling the mentioned features), which the SAT does not allow.[32] Standard graphing calculators, such as the TI-83 and TI-84, are allowed. Within the TI-Nspire family, the standard and CX versions are allowed while the CX CAS is not. This is the only section that has five answer choices per question instead of four.

Reading

[edit]

The reading section is a 35-minute, 40-question test that consists of four sections, three of which contain one long prose passage and one which contains two shorter prose passages. The passages are representative of the levels and kinds of text commonly encountered in first-year college curriculum. This reading test assesses skills in three general categories: key ideas and details, craft and structure, and integration of knowledge and ideas. Test questions will usually ask students to derive meaning from texts referring to what is explicitly stated or by reasoning to determine implicit meanings. Specifically, questions will ask students to use referring and reasoning skills to determine main ideas; locate and interpret significant details; understand sequences of events; make comparisons; comprehend cause-effect relationships; determine the meaning of context-dependent words, phrases, and statements; draw generalizations; and analyze the author's or narrator's voice and method.[33]

Science

[edit]

The optional science section is a 35-minute, 40-question test. There are seven passages each followed by five to seven questions. The passages have three different formats: Data Representation, Research Summary, and Conflicting Viewpoints. While the format used to be very predictable (i.e. there were always three Data Representation passages with 5 questions following each, 3 Research Summary passages with six questions each, and one Conflicting Viewpoints passage with 7 questions),[34] when the number of passages was reduced from 7 to 6, more variability in the number of each passage type started to appear. But so far, there is still always only one Conflicting Viewpoints passage. These changes are very recent, and the only reference to them so far is in the recently released practice test on the ACT website.[35]

The science section was mandatory until 2024, when it was made optional with the goal of giving students additional flexibility when taking the ACT exam.[36]

Writing

[edit]

The optional writing section, which is always administered at the end of the test, is 40 minutes (increasing from the original 30-minute time limit on the September 2015 test). While no particular essay structure is required, the essays must be in response to a given prompt; the prompts are about broad social issues (changing from the old prompts which were directly applicable to teenagers), and students must analyze three different perspectives given and show how their opinion relates to these perspectives. The essay does not affect the composite score or the English section score; it is only given as a separate writing score and is included in the ELA score. Two trained readers assign each essay subscores between 1 and 6 in four different categories: Ideas and Analysis, Development and Support, Organization, Language Use and Conventions. Scores of 0 are reserved for essays that are blank, off-topic, non-English, not written with a no. 2 pencil, or considered illegible after several attempts at reading. The subscores from the two different readers are summed to produce final domain scores from 2 to 12 (or 0) in each of the four categories. If the two readers' subscores differ by more than one point, then a senior third reader makes the final decision on the score. The four domain scores are combined through a process that has not been described to create a writing section score between 1 and 36. Note that the domain scores are not added to create the writing section score.[28][37]

Although the writing section is optional, many colleges require an essay score and will factor it into the admissions decision (but fewer than half of all colleges have this requirement).[38]

Averages

[edit]
A chart of average ACT scores since 1970.
Historical average ACT scores of college-bound seniors
This map shows the mean ACT composite scores of students within the United States in 2014.

For the "enhanced" version of the ACT introduced in 1989, the mean score of each of the four tests, as well as the mean composite score, was scaled to be 18, with an intended standard error of measurement of 2 for the four test scores and 1 for the composite score.[39] These statistics vary from year to year for current populations of ACT takers.

The chart below summarizes each section and the average test score based on graduating high school seniors in 2023.[7][40]

Section Number of questions Time (minutes) Score Range Average score (2023) College Readiness Benchmark Content
English 75 45 1–36 18.6 18 Usage/mechanics and rhetorical skills
Mathematics 60 60 1–36 19.0 22 Pre-algebra, elementary algebra, intermediate algebra, coordinate geometry, geometry, elementary trigonometry, reasoning, and problem-solving
Reading 40 35 1–36 20.1 22 Reading comprehension
Optional Science 40 35 1–36 19.6 23 Interpretation, analysis, evaluation, reasoning, and problem-solving
Optional Writing Test (not included in composite score) 1 essay prompt 40 1–12 6.1 Writing skills
Composite 1–36 19.5 Average (mean) of all section scores except Writing

Highest score

[edit]
Percent of high school seniors scoring a composite of 36 on their ACT test from 1997 to 2023

The table below summarizes how many students achieved a composite score of 36 on the ACT between the years of 1997 and 2023.[41][42][43][7]

Year Number of students who achieved a composite score of 36 Number of students overall % of students who achieved a 36
2023 2,542 1,386,335 0.1834
2022 3,376 1,349,644 0.2501
2021 4,055 1,295,349 0.3130
2020 5,579 1,670,497 0.3340
2019 4,879 1,782,820 0.2737
2018 3,741 1,914,817 0.1954
2017 2,760 2,030,038 0.1359
2016 2,235 2,090,342 0.1069
2015 1,598 1,924,436 0.0830
2014 1,407 1,845,787 0.07622
2013 1,162 1,799,243 0.06458
2012 781 1,666,017 0.04687
2011 704 1,623,112 0.04337
2010 588 1,568,835 0.03748
2009 638 1,480,469 0.04309
2008 428 1,421,941 0.03010
2007 314 1,300,599 0.02414
2006 216 1,206,455 0.01790
2005 193 1,186,251 0.01627
2004 224 1,171,460 0.01912
2003 195 1,175,059 0.01659
2002 134 1,116,082 0.01201
2001 89 1,069,772 0.00832
2000 131 1,065,138 0.01230
1999 85 1,019,053 0.00834
1998 71 995,039 0.00714
1997 74 959,301 0.00771

College admissions

[edit]

The ACT Assessment Student Report, at ACT.org, provides the typical ACT Composite averages for college and universities admission policies. They caution that "because admission policies vary across colleges, the score ranges should be considered rough guidelines." Following is a list of the average composite scores that typically are accepted at colleges or universities.[44]

  • Ivy Caliber (Schools that as a rule of thumb have below a 1 in 8 acceptance rate): scores 32–36
  • Highly selective (majority of accepted freshmen in top 10% of high school graduating class): scores 27–31
  • Selective (majority of accepted freshmen in top 25% of high school graduating class): scores 24–26
  • Traditional (majority of accepted freshmen in top 50% of high school graduating class): scores 21–23
  • Liberal (some freshmen from lower half of high school graduating class): scores 18–20
  • Open (all high school graduates accepted, to limit of capacity): scores 17–20 Any score is likely accepted.

Test availability

[edit]

The ACT is offered seven times a year in the United States and its territories, Puerto Rico, and Canada: in September, October, December, February, April, June, and July. (In New York State, the test is not offered in July.) In other locations, the ACT is offered five times a year: in September, October, December, April, and June.[45] The ACT is offered only on Saturdays except for those with credible religious obligations, who may take the test on another day.[46]

The ACT is designed, administered, and scored so that there is no advantage to testing on one particular date.[47]

Candidates may choose either the ACT assessment ($63.00), or the ACT assessment plus writing ($88.00).[48]

Students with verifiable disabilities, including physical and learning disabilities, are eligible to take the test with accommodations. The standard time increase for students requiring additional time due to disabilities is 50%.[49] Originally, the score sheet was labeled that additional time was granted due to a learning disability; however, this was ultimately dropped because it was deemed illegal under the Americans with Disabilities Act and could be perceived as an unfair designator of disability.

Scores are sent to the student, their high school, and up to four colleges of the student's choice (optional).[50]

Test section durations

[edit]

Time is a major factor to consider in testing.

The ACT is generally regarded as being composed of somewhat easier questions versus the SAT[51][citation needed], but the shorter time allotted to complete each section increases difficulty. The ACT allows:

  • 45 minutes for a 75-question English section
  • 60 minutes for a 60-question Mathematics section
  • 35 minutes for a 40-question Reading section
  • 35 minutes for a 40-question Science section

Comparatively, the SAT is structured such that the test taker is allowed at least one minute per question, on generally shorter sections (25 or fewer questions). Times may be adjusted as a matter of accommodation for certain disabilities or other impairments.

National ranks (score cumulative percentages)

[edit]

Score reports provided to students taking the ACT test include the ranks (or cumulative percents) for each score and subscore received by the student. Each rank gives the percentage of recently tested students in the U.S. who scored at or below the given student's score.[52] The following table shows the ACT national ranks as of the 2020-21 school year.[53]

ACT Score English Rank Math Rank Reading Rank Science Rank Composite Rank STEM Rank
36 100 100 100 100 100 100
35 99 99 98 99 99 99
34 96 99 96 98 99 99
33 94 98 94 97 98 98
32 92 97 91 96 96 97
31 91 96 89 95 95 96
30 89 94 86 93 93 94
29 88 93 84 92 90 92
28 86 91 82 90 88 90
27 84 88 80 88 85 87
26 82 84 77 85 82 84
25 79 79 74 82 78 80
24 75 74 71 77 74 75
23 71 70 66 71 70 70
22 65 65 61 64 64 65
21 60 61 55 58 59 60
20 55 58 50 51 53 54
19 49 54 44 45 47 48
18 45 49 39 39 41 41
17 41 42 34 32 35 33
16 37 33 29 26 28 26
15 32 21 24 19 22 18
14 25 11 19 14 16 11
13 19 4 14 10 10 5
12 15 1 10 7 5 2
11 11 1 5 4 2 1
10 7 1 3 3 1 1
9 3 1 1 1 1 1
8 2 1 1 1 1 1
7 1 1 1 1 1 1
6 1 1 1 1 1 1
5 1 1 1 1 1 1
4 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Concordance of ACT Scores and SAT Scores

[edit]

The College Board (the developer of the SAT) and ACT, Inc. compared scores from about 600,000 students who were graduating in 2017 and who took both the SAT (2016 revision) and the ACT in 2016 and 2017. The following table shows, for each ACT composite score in the data set, the corresponding range of SAT total scores for students with the same percentile rank on each test. The most appropriate corresponding SAT score point for the given ACT score is also shown in the table.[54]

ACT Composite Score SAT Total Score Range SAT Total Score
36 1570–1600 1590
35 1530–1560 1540
34 1490–1520 1500
33 1450–1480 1460
32 1420–1440 1430
31 1390–1410 1400
30 1360–1380 1370
29 1330–1350 1340
28 1300–1320 1310
27 1260–1290 1280
26 1230–1250 1240
25 1200–1220 1210
24 1160–1190 1180
23 1130–1150 1140
22 1100–1120 1110
21 1060–1090 1080
20 1030–1050 1040
19 990–1020 1010
18 960–980 970
17 920–950 930
16 880–910 890
15 830–870 850
14 780–820 800
13 730–770 760
12 690–720 710
11 650–680 670
10 620–640 630
9 590–610 590

Score cumulative percentages and comparison with pre-2016 SAT

[edit]

The data in this section pertains to the SAT prior to the 2016 redesign. Comparisons to SAT scores are not valid after the 2017 graduating class.

Sixty percent—about 2.03 million students—of the 2017 high school graduating class took the ACT. For the graduating class of 2017, the average composite score was a 21.0. Of these test-takers, 46% were male and 52% were female, with 2% not reporting a gender. 2,760 students in the graduating class of 2017 received the highest ACT composite score of 36.[55]

2005 distribution of ACT scores

The following chart shows, for each ACT score from 11 to 36, the corresponding ACT percentile and equivalent total SAT score or score range.[56][failed verification] (Concordance data for ACT scores less than 11 is not yet available for the current version of the SAT.) Note that ACT percentiles are defined as the percentage of test takers scoring at or below the given score.

SAT combined score (Math + Reading/Writing) ACT composite score The percentile of students at or below this score for the ACT (not SAT)
1600 36 100%
1560–1590 35 99.9%
1520–1550 34 99%
1490–1510 33 98%
1450–1480 32 97%
1420–1440 31 96%
1390–1410 30 94%
1350–1380 29 92%
1310–1340 28 89%
1280–1300 27 86%
1240–1270 26 82%
1200–1230 25 78%
1160–1190 24 74%
1130–1150 23 69%
1100–1120 22 63%
1060–1090 21 57%
1020–1050 20 51%
980–1010 19 44%
940–970 18 38%
900–930 17 31%
860–890 16 25%
810–850 15 19%
760–800 14 13%
720–750 13 8%
630–710 12 4%
560–620 11 1%

Score vs Percentile for English Section

[edit]
Score The percentile of students

at or below this score

36 100%
35 99%
34 99%
33 97%
32 96%
31 94%
30 93%
29 91%
28 88%
27 85%
26 82%
25 78%
24 73%
23 68%
22 63%
21 57%
20 50%
19 43%
18 38%
17 33%
16 29%
15 24%
14 18%
13 14%
12 11%
11 9%

Score vs Percentile for Mathematics Section

[edit]
Score The percentile of students

at or below this score

36 99%
35 99%
34 99%
33 98%
32 97%
31 96%
30 94%
29 93%
28 91%
27 88%
26 84%
25 79%
24 74%
23 67%
22 61%
21 57%
20 52%
19 47%
18 41%
17 34%
16 26%
15 14%
14 6%
13 2%
12 1%
11 1%

Score vs Percentile for Reading Section

[edit]
Score The percentile of students

at or below this score

36 99%
35 99%
34 99%
33 97%
32 95%
31 93%
30 91%
29 87%
28 85%
27 82%
26 78%
25 75%
24 71%
23 66%
22 60%
21 54%
20 48%
19 42%
18 39%
17 30%
16 25%
15 19%
14 15%
13 10%
12 6%
11 3%

Score vs Percentile for Science Section

[edit]
Score The percentile of students

at or below this score

36 99%
35 99%
34 99%
33 99%
32 98%
31 97%
30 96%
29 95%
28 93%
27 91%
26 87%
25 83%
24 77%
23 70%
22 62%
21 56%
20 47%
19 38%
18 34%
17 21%
16 19%
15 15%
14 11%
13 8%
12 5%
11 3%

Sources:[57][failed verification]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
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  2. ^ "Understand Your Scores – Sample Student Report – ACT Student". ACT, Inc. Retrieved October 13, 2014.
  3. ^ "Registration – Test Dates in the U.S., U.S. Territories, and Canada – ACT Student". ACT, Inc. Retrieved October 13, 2014.
  4. ^ "Registration – Test Dates in Other Countries – ACT Student". ACT, Inc. Retrieved October 13, 2014.
  5. ^ "Test Center Locations, Dates, and Codes". ACT, Inc. Retrieved October 13, 2014.
  6. ^ "Test Center Codes – International – ACT Student". ACT Inc. Retrieved October 13, 2014.
  7. ^ a b c "The ACT Profile Report – National, Graduating Class 2023" (PDF). ACT, Inc. Retrieved November 1, 2023.
  8. ^ "Current ACT Fees and Services". ACT, Inc. Retrieved September 21, 2017.
  9. ^ "The ACT Test Help and Frequently Asked Questions – Am I eligible for a fee waiver?". ACT, Inc. Archived from the original on June 27, 2021. Retrieved September 21, 2017.
  10. ^ a b "About ACT: History". Archived from the original on October 8, 2006. Retrieved October 25, 2006. Name changed in 1996.
  11. ^ "About the ACT Test". About the ACT Test - K12 Solutions. ACT. Retrieved May 19, 2024.
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  14. ^ Recine, David (July 21, 2017). "When Will the ACT Start Computer-Based Testing?". Magoosh Blog | High School. Retrieved February 16, 2018.
  15. ^ Godwin, Janet (July 15, 2024). "The ACT Test Is Evolving". ACT. Retrieved November 1, 2024.
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  19. ^ Radunzal, J.; Noble, J. (April 2012). "Tracking 2003 act-tested high school graduates: College readiness, enrollment, and long-term success" (PDF). ACT. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 16, 2015.
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  29. ^ "Newsroom – Press Kit, Digital Media Library, and Press Releases". Archived from the original on July 29, 2015. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
  30. ^ "The ACT-Getting Ready for Test Day".
  31. ^ Geoff Martz; Kim Magloire; Theodore Silver. (2007). "Chapter 10". Cracking The ACT (2007 ed.). The Princeton Review. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-375-76585-8.
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  33. ^ "Description of Reading Test". ACT. Retrieved August 18, 2017.
  34. ^ Geoff Martz; Kim Magloire; Theodore Silver. (2007). "Chapter 20". Cracking The ACT (2007 ed.). The Princeton Review. p. 307. ISBN 978-0-375-76585-8.
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