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Fourth generation of video game consoles

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In the history of video games, the fourth generation of video game consoles, more commonly referred to as the 16-bit era, began on October 30, 1987, with the Japanese release of NEC Home Electronics' PC Engine (known as the TurboGrafx-16 in North America). Though NEC released the first console of this era, sales were mostly dominated by the rivalry between Sega and Nintendo across most markets: the Sega Mega Drive (known as the Sega Genesis in North America) and the Super Nintendo (known as the Super Famicom in Japan). Cartridge-based handheld game consoles became prominent during this time, such as the Nintendo Game Boy, Atari Lynx, Sega Game Gear and TurboExpress.

Nintendo was able to capitalize on its success in the third generation, and managed to win the largest worldwide market share in the fourth generation as well. However, particularly in the lucrative North American market, there was a fierce console war that raged through the early '90s, which eventually saw Sega outselling Nintendo in North America by 1991. Sega's success in this era stemmed largely from its launch of its popular Sonic the Hedgehog franchise to compete with Nintendo's Super Mario series, as well as a very stylized marketing campaign aimed at American teenagers. Several other companies released consoles in this generation, but none of them were widely successful. Nevertheless, there were other companies that started to take notice of the maturing video game industry and begin making plans to release consoles of their own in the future. As with prior generations, game media still continued to be distributed primarily on ROM cartridges, though the first optical disk systems, such as the Philips CD-i, were released to limited success. As games became more complex, concerns over video game violence, namely in titles such as Mortal Kombat and Night Trap, led to the eventual creation of the Entertainment Software Rating Board.

The emergence of fifth generation video game consoles, beginning around 1994, did not significantly diminish the popularity of fourth generation consoles for a few years. In 1996, however, there was a major drop in sales of hardware from this generation and a dwindling number of software publishers supporting fourth generation systems,[1] which together led to a drop in software sales in subsequent years. This generation ended with the discontinuation of the Neo Geo in 2004.

Differences from third generation consoles

[edit]

Features that distinguish some fourth generation consoles from third generation consoles include:

Additionally, in specific cases, fourth generation hardware featured:

Home systems

[edit]

TurboGrafx-16

[edit]
Main article: TurboGrafx-16
TurboGrafx-16

The PC Engine was the result of a collaboration between Hudson Soft and NEC and launched in Japan on October 30, 1987. It launched under the name TurboGrafx-16 in North America on August 29, 1989.

Initially, the PC Engine was quite successful in Japan, partly due to titles available on the then-new CD-ROM format. NEC released a CD add-on in 1990 and by 1992 had released a combination TurboGrafx and CD-ROM system known as the TurboDuo.

In the United States, NEC used Bonk, a head-banging caveman, as their mascot and featured him in most of the TurboGrafx advertising from 1990 to 1994. The platform was well received initially, especially in larger markets, but failed to make inroads into the smaller metropolitan areas where NEC did not have as many store representatives or as focused in-store promotion.

The TurboGrafx-16 failed to maintain its sales momentum or to make a strong impact in North America.[2] The TurboGrafx-16 and its CD combination system, the Turbo Duo, ceased manufacturing in North America by 1994, though a small amount of software continued to trickle out for the platform.

Mega Drive/Genesis

[edit]
Main article: Sega Genesis
Second version of the Sega Genesis

The Mega Drive was released in Japan on October 29, 1988.[3] The console was released in New York City and Los Angeles on August 14, 1989, under the name Sega Genesis, and in the rest of North America later that year.[4] It was launched in Europe and Australia on November 30, 1990, under its original name.

Sega built their marketing campaign around their new mascot Sonic the Hedgehog,[5] pushing the Genesis as the "cooler" alternative to Nintendo's console[6] and inventing the term "Blast Processing" to suggest that the Genesis was capable of handling games with faster motion than the SNES.[7] Their advertising was often directly adversarial, leading to commercials such as "Genesis does what Nintendon't" and no scream at all.[8]

When the arcade game Mortal Kombat was ported for home release on the Genesis and Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Nintendo decided to censor the game's gore, but Sega kept the content in the game, via a code entered at the start screen. Sega's version of Mortal Kombat received generally more favorable reviews in the gaming press and outsold the SNES version three to one. This also led to Congressional hearings to investigate the marketing of violent video games to children, and to the creation of the Interactive Digital Software Association and the Entertainment Software Rating Board.[9] Sega concluded that the superior sales of their version of Mortal Kombat were outweighed by the resulting loss in consumer trust, and cancelled the game's release in Spain to avoid further controversy.[10] With the new ESRB rating system in place, Nintendo reconsidered its position for the release of Mortal Kombat II, and this time became the preferred version among reviewers.[11][12] The Toy Retail Sales Tracking Service reported that during the key shopping month of November 1994, 63% of all 16-bit video game consoles sold were Sega systems.[13]

The console was never popular in Japan (being regularly outsold by the PC Engine), but still managed to sell 40 million units worldwide. By late 1995, Sega was supporting five different consoles and two add-ons, and Sega Enterprises chose to discontinue the Mega Drive in Japan to concentrate on the new Sega Saturn.[14] While this made perfect sense for the Japanese market, it was disastrous in North America: the market for Genesis games was much larger than for the Saturn, but Sega was left without the inventory or software to meet demand.[15]

Super NES

[edit]
Main article: Super Nintendo Entertainment System
The Japanese & PAL version of the Super NES (first model)

Nintendo executives were initially reluctant to design a new system, but as the market transitioned to the newer hardware, Nintendo saw the erosion of the commanding market share it had built up with the Nintendo Entertainment System.[16] Nintendo's fourth-generation console, the Super Famicom, was released in Japan on November 21, 1990; Nintendo's initial shipment of 300,000 units sold out within hours.[17] The machine reached North America as the Super Nintendo Entertainment System on August 23, 1991,[cn 1] and Europe and Australia in April 1992.

Despite stiff competition from the Mega Drive/Genesis console, the Super NES eventually took the top selling position, selling 49.10 million units worldwide,[24] and would remain popular well into the fifth generation of consoles.[25] Nintendo's market position was defined by their machine's increased video and sound capabilities,[26] including exclusive first-party franchise titles such as F-Zero, Super Mario World, Star Fox, Super Mario Kart, Donkey Kong Country, The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past and Super Metroid.

Compact Disc Interactive (CD-i)

[edit]
Main article: Philips CD-i
Philips CD-i

The CD-i format was announced in the late 1980s, with the first machines compatible with the format being released in 1991. The Philips CD-i's main selling point was that it was more than a game machine and could be used for multimedia needs. Due to an agreement between Nintendo and Philips about an abortive CD add-on for the SNES (which eventually evolved into Sony's PlayStation), Philips also had rights to use some of Nintendo's franchises. The CD-i was a commercial failure and was discontinued in 1998,[27] selling only 1 million units worldwide despite several partnerships and multiple versions of the device, some made by other manufacturers.

Neo Geo

[edit]
Main article: Neo Geo (console)
Neo-Geo

Released by SNK in 1990, the Neo Geo was a home console version of the major arcade platform. Compared to its console competition, the Neo Geo had much better graphics and sound, however, the prohibitively expensive launch price of $649.99 and games often retailing at over $250 made the console only accessible to a niche market. A less expensive version, retailing for $399.99, did not include a memory card, pack-in game or extra joystick.

Add-ons

[edit]

Nintendo, NEC and Sega also competed with hardware peripherals for their consoles in this generation. NEC was the first with the release of the TurboGrafx CD system in 1990. Retailing for $399.99 at release, the CD add-on was not a popular purchase, but was largely responsible for the platform's success in Japan.[28] The Sega CD was released with an unusually high price tag ($300 at its release) and a limited library of games. A unique add-on for the Sega console was Sega Channel, a subscription-based service (a form of online gaming delivery) hosted by local television providers. It required hardware that plugged into a cable line and the Genesis.

Nintendo also made two attempts with the Satellaview and the Super Game Boy. The Satellaview was a satellite service released only in Japan and the Super Game Boy was an adapter for the SNES that allowed Game Boy games to be displayed on a TV in color. Nintendo, working along with Sony, also had plans to create a CD-ROM drive for the SNES (plans that resulted in a prototype version of the Sony PlayStation), but eventually decided not to go through with that project, opting to team up with Philips in the development of the add-on instead (contrary to popular belief, the CD-i was largely unrelated to the project).

European importing

[edit]
  NTSC
  PAL, or switching to PAL
  SECAM
  No information

The fourth generation was also the era when the act of buying imported US games became more established in Europe, and regular stores began to carry them. The PAL region has a refresh rate of 50 Hz (compared with 60 Hz for NTSC) and a vertical resolution of 625 interlaced lines (576 effective), compared with 525/480 for NTSC. Because the simulation speed of contemporary game systems was directly linked to the output frame rate, which was in turn synchronized with the TV's refresh rate, this meant that the game would run more slowly on a PAL television. The smaller number of vertical lines in the NTSC signal would also lead to black bars appearing on the top and bottom of a PAL television. Developers often had a hard time converting games designed for the American and Japanese NTSC standard to the European and Australian PAL standard.[citation needed] Companies such as Konami, with large budgets and a healthy following in Europe and Australia, readily optimized several games (such as the International Superstar Soccer series) for this audience, while most smaller developers did not.[citation needed]

Also, few RPGs were released in Europe because the market for the genre was not as large as in Japan or North America, and the increasing amount of time and money required for translation as RPGs became more text-heavy, in addition to the usual need to convert the games to the PAL standard, often made localizing the games to Europe a high-cost venture with little potential payoff.[29][30] As a result, RPG releases in Europe were largely limited to games which had previously been localized for North America, thus reducing the amount of translation required.[30]

Popular US games imported at this time included Final Fantasy IV (known in the US as Final Fantasy II), Final Fantasy VI (known in the US as Final Fantasy III), Secret of Mana, Street Fighter II, Chrono Trigger, and Super Mario RPG. Secret of Mana and Street Fighter II would eventually receive official release in Europe, whilst Final Fantasy IV, Final Fantasy VI, Chrono Trigger and Super Mario RPG would be released in Europe years later on other consoles or formats outside of this generation.

Comparison

[edit]
Comparison of fourth-generation video game home consoles
Name PC-Engine/TurboGrafx-16 SuperGrafx Mega Drive/Genesis Super Famicom/Super Nintendo Neo Geo
Manufacturer NEC Sega Nintendo SNK
Image(s)


Release date
  • JP: October 30, 1987
  • NA: August 29, 1989
  • EU: 1990
  • JP: December 8, 1989
  • JP: October 29, 1988
  • NA: August 14, 1989
  • EU: November 30, 1990
  • JP: November 21, 1990
  • NA: August 23, 1991[cn 1]
  • EU: April 11, 1992
  • JP: June 18, 1991
  • NA: June 18, 1991
  • EU: 1991
Launch prices US$ US$199.99 (equivalent to $490 in 2023) - US$189.99 (equivalent to $470 in 2023) US$199.99 (equivalent to $450 in 2023) US$649.99 (Gold version) (equivalent to $1,450 in 2023)

US$399.99 (Silver version) (equivalent to $890 in 2023)

GBP - £189.99[31][32] (equivalent to $550 in 2023) £150[33] (equivalent to $390 in 2023)
A$ -
JP¥ ¥59,800 (equivalent to ¥60,610 in 2019) ¥21,000 (equivalent to ¥24,610 in 2019) ¥25,000 (equivalent to ¥27,800 in 2019)
Media Type
  • Cartridge
  • Data card (Japan/Europe)[34]
Regional lockout Partial[35] Region locked Region locked Unrestricted
Backward compatibility N/A Master System (using Power Base Converter) Nintendo Entertainment System (unlicensed, using Super 8)

Game Boy (using Super Game Boy)

N/A
Best-selling games Bonk's Adventure[36] Daimakaimura Sonic the Hedgehog (15 million)[37] Super Mario World, 20 million (as of June 25, 2007)[38] Samurai Shodown
Accessories (retail)
  • Neo Geo Controller Pro
  • Neo Geo Memory Card
CPU

Hudson Soft HuC6280A (based on 8-bit 65SC02)
1.79 MHz (0.77 MIPS) or 7.16 MHz (3.08 MIPS)[40]

32X Add-on:

SA-1 enhancement chip:

  • Nintendo custom 65C816
    10.74 MHz (4.5 MIPS)
GPU
  • Hudson Soft HuC6260 Video Color Encoder (16-bit)
  • Hudson Soft HuC6270A Video Display Controller (16-bit)
  • HuC6260
  • 2× HuC6270A
  • HuC6202 Video Priority Controller

Upgrades:

Enhancement chips:

  • SNK LSPC2-A2 (line sprite generator & VRAM interface)[50]
  • SNK PRO-B0 (palette arbiter)[51][52]
Sound chip(s)

Hudson Soft HuC6280A PSG

32X Add-on:

Sony APU (Audio Processing Unit)
  • S-SMP (8-bit Sony SPC700)
  • S-DSP (16-bit DSP)
 Yamaha YM2610
RAM

32 KB main, 128 KB video RAM

Upgrades:

  • SVP chip: 128 KB DRAM, 2 KB cache, 1 KB DSP RAM[56]
  • 32X add-on: 256 KB main RAM, 256 KB video RAM
  • 128 KB main DRAM
  • 64 KB video SRAM
  • 64 KB audio PSRAM

Enhancement chips:

  • SA-1: 2 KB RAM
  • Super FX: 32 to 128 KB SRAM[49]
  • Super FX 2: 64 to 128 KB SRAM[49]
  • 64 KB main SRAM
  • 74 KB video SRAM
  • 2 KB audio SRAM[50]
Video 128 sprites on screen, 32 sprites per scanline, 2 sprite layers, 2 parallax scrolling tilemap backgrounds, 512 colors on screen

Upgrades:

  • Resolution: 256×224 to 256×239 (progressive), 512×448 to 512×478 (interlaced)
  • Sprites: 128 on screen, 32 per scanline, 8×8 to 64×64 sizes, 16 colors per sprite, sprite flipping[46]
  • Tilemaps: 2–4 parallax scrolling planes (lo-res), or 1–2 scrolling planes (hi-res), or 1 scaling/rotating plane (Mode 7)[46]
  • Colors on screen: 256 (1–3 lo-res planes), 128 (4 planes), 128 to 160 (hi-res)[46]
  • Color palette: 32,768 (15-bit high color)

Enhancement chips:

  • Super FX: 2,000 flat shading polygons/sec, 1,000 texture mapping polygons/sec[69]
  • Super FX 2: 4,000 flat shading polygons/sec, 2,000 texture mapping polygons/sec
  • Capcom Cx4: Sprite rotation/Calculations for wireframe effects
  • DSP-1: Advance Scaling and Rotation via Mode 7
  • DSP-2: Dynamic Scaling Capability and Transparency effects
  • DSP-3: Bitstream decompression, and bitplane conversion of graphics
  • DSP-4: Draw Distance
Audio Stereo audio with:

Upgrades:

Stereo audio with: Stereo audio with:
  • 4 FM synthesis channels/voices
  • 3 square wave channels/voices
  • 1 white noise generator
  • 6 ADPCM channels (12-bit) @ 18.5 kHz sampling rate[73]
  • 1 ADPCM channel (16-bit) @ 1.8 to 55.5 kHz sampling rate[73]

CD-supported consoles

[edit]
Name CD-ROM²/TurboGrafx-CD PC Engine Duo/TurboDuo CD-i Sega CD/Mega-CD Wondermega/X'Eye
Manufacturer NEC Philips Sega Victor/JVC
Console






Release date
  • JP: December 4, 1988
  • NA: November 1989
  • JP: September 21, 1991
  • NA: October 10, 1992
  • NA: December 3, 1991
  • JP: April 25, 1992
  • EU: July 10, 1992
  • JP: December 12, 1991
  • NA: October 15, 1992
  • EU: April 1993
  • JP: April 1, 1992
  • NA: September, 1994
Launch prices US$ US$399.99 (equivalent to $980 in 2023) US$299.99 (equivalent to $650 in 2023) US$799 (equivalent to $1,790 in 2023) US$299 (equivalent to $650 in 2023) US$500 (equivalent to $1,030 in 2023)
GBP £270 (equivalent to £700 in 2023)
A$
JP¥ JP¥49,800 (equivalent to ¥53,600 in 2019)
Regional lockout Unrestricted Partial[35] Unrestricted Region locked
Accessories (retail)
  • Arcade Card (1994)
  • TurboDuo-Controller-Adapter
  • Arcade Pad 6
  • Sega CD Backup Ram carts (1992 JP) (1994 NA) [39]
CPU

Hudson Soft HuC6280A (based on 8-bit 65SC02)
1.79 MHz (0.77 MIPS) or 7.16 MHz (3.08 MIPS)[40]

Philips SCC68070 @ 15.5 MHz

Motorola 68000 @ 12.5 MHz (2.19 MIPS)[40]

GPU
  • Hudson Soft HuC6260 Video Color Encoder (16-bit)
  • Hudson Soft HuC6270A Video Display Controller (16-bit)

Philips SCC66470, MCD 212

Sega ASIC coprocessor[66]

Sound chip(s)

Oki MSM5205

MCD 221

Ricoh RF5c164

RAM
  • 8 KB main RAM
  • 64 KB video RAM
  • 64 KB main DRAM, 64 KB audio DRAM

Super CD-ROM²:

  • 256 KB SRAM
  • 64 KB DRAM
  • 2 KB Back-up SRAM

Upgrades:

  • Arcade Duo Card: 2048 KB FPM DRAM, 192 KB SRAM[74]
  • Arcade Pro Card: 2240 KB+192 kB
  • 256 KB SRAM
  • 64 KB Video RAM
  • 8 KB Work Ram

1 MB RAM

  • 512 KB main
  • 256 KB Video
  • 64 KB Audio
  • 16 KB cache
  • 8 KB Internal Back-up[75]

CD BackUp Ram Carts:

Audio Stereo audio with: Stereo audio with:
  • 8 ADPCM channels
 Stereo audio with:
  • 8 PCM channels (16-bit, 32 kHz)[66]
  • 1 streaming CD-DA channel (16-bit, 44.1 kHz)

Other consoles

[edit]

Worldwide sales standings

[edit]
See also: List of best-selling game consoles
Console Firm Units sold
Super Nintendo Entertainment System Nintendo 49.1 million[79]
Sega Mega Drive/Genesis Sega 35.25 million[cn 3]
PC Engine/TurboGrafx-16 NEC 7.7 million
Sega CD Sega 2.765 million[85]
PC Engine CD-ROM² NEC 1.92 million[86]
Neo Geo AES SNK 1.18 million[cn 4]
Philips CD-i Philips 1 million[89]
Sega 32X Sega 800,000[90]
FM Towns Marty Fujitsu 45,000 (as of December 31, 1993)[91]
Neo Geo CD SNK 570,000[88]

Handheld systems

[edit]
See also: Comparison of handheld game consoles

The first handheld game console released in the fourth generation was the Game Boy, on April 21, 1989. It went on to dominate handheld sales by an extremely large margin, despite featuring an 8-bit microprocessor and a low-contrast, unlit monochrome screen while all three of its leading competitors had color. Three major franchises made their debut on the Game Boy: Tetris, the Game Boy's killer application; Pokémon; and Kirby. With some design (Game Boy Pocket, Game Boy Light) and hardware (Game Boy Color) changes, it continued in production in some form until 2008, enjoying a better than 18-year run.

The Atari Lynx included hardware-accelerated color graphics, a backlight, and the ability to link up to sixteen units together in an early example of network play when its competitors could only link 2 or 4 consoles (or none at all),[92] but its comparatively short battery life (approximately 4.5 hours on a set of alkaline cells, versus 35 hours for the Game Boy), high price, and weak games library made it one of the worst-selling handheld game systems of all time, with less than 500,000 units sold.[93][94]

The third major handheld of the fourth generation was the Game Gear. It featured graphics capabilities roughly comparable to the Master System (better colours, but lower resolution), a ready made games library by using the "Master-Gear" adaptor to play cartridges from the older console, and the opportunity to be converted into a portable TV using a cheap tuner adaptor, but it also suffered some of the same shortcomings as the Lynx. While it sold more than twenty times as many units as the Lynx, its bulky design – slightly larger than even the original Game Boy; relatively poor battery life – only a little better than the Lynx; and later arrival in the marketplace – competing for sales amongst the remaining buyers who did not already have a Game Boy – hampered its overall popularity despite being more closely competitive to the Nintendo in terms of price and breadth of software library.[95] Sega eventually retired the Game Gear in 1997, a year before Nintendo released the first examples of the Game Boy Color, to focus on the Nomad and non-portable console products.

Other handheld consoles released during the fourth generation included the TurboExpress, a handheld version of the TurboGrafx-16 released by NEC in 1990, and the Game Boy Pocket, an improved model of the Game Boy released about two years before the debut of the Game Boy Color. While the TurboExpress was another early pioneer of color handheld gaming technology and had the added benefit of using the same game cartridges or 'HuCards' as the TurboGrafx16, it had even worse battery life than the Lynx and Game Gear – about three hours on six contemporary AA batteries – selling only 1.5 million units.[94]

List of handheld consoles

[edit]
Console Game Boy / Game Boy Pocket / Game Boy Light Atari Lynx Game Gear PC Engine GT / TurboExpress / PC Engine LT
Manufacturer Nintendo Atari Sega NEC
Image
Release date
  • Game Boy
    • JP: April 21, 1989
    • US: July 31, 1989
    • EU: September 28, 1990
  • Game Boy Pocket
    • JP: July 21, 1996
    • US: September 3, 1996
  • Game Boy Light
    • JP: April 14, 1998
  • US: October 11, 1989
  • EU: 1990
  • JP: 1990
  • JP: October 6, 1990
  • EU: April 26, 1991
  • US: April 26, 1991
  • AU: 1992
  • PC Engine GT/TurboExpress
    PC Engine LT
    • JP: December 13, 1991
Launch price US$ US$89.95[97] (equivalent to $220 in 2023) US$189.99 (equivalent to $470 in 2023) US$149.99 (equivalent to $340 in 2023) US$299.99[98] (equivalent to $670 in 2023)
GBP £99[99] (equivalent to £300 in 2023)
A$ A$155 (equivalent to $330 in 2022)
JP¥ ¥12,500[100] (equivalent to ¥14,330 in 2019) ¥14,500 (equivalent to ¥16,130 in 2019)
Units sold 118.69 million, including Game Boy Color[101][102] 500,000[94] 11 million[94] 1.5 million[94]
Media Type Cartridge Cartridge Cartridge Datacard
Regional lockout Unrestricted Unrestricted Unrestricted Region locked
Backward compatibility — — Master System (using adapter) TurboGrafx-16 (HuCard only)
Best-selling games Pokémon Red, Blue, and Yellow RoadBlasters Sonic the Hedgehog 2 Bonk's Adventure
CPU Sharp SM83 @ 4 MHz MOS 65SC02 @ 4 MHz Zilog Z80 @ 3.5 MHz HuC6280A @ 1.79 / 7.16 MHz
Memory 8 KB work RAM, 8 KB video RAM 64 KB RAM 8 KB work RAM, 16 KB video RAM 8 KB work RAM, 64 KB video RAM
Video
  • 2.6 inch
  • 160×144
  • 4 shades of green/gray
  • 3.5 inch
  • 160×102
  • 4,096-color palette, 16 colors per scanline
  • 3.2 inch
  • 160×144
  • 4,096-color palette, 32 colors on-screen
  • 2.6 inch
  • 400×270
  • 64 sprites, 16 per scanline
  • 512-color palette, 482 colors on-screen
Audio Stereo audio (using headphones), with:
  • Two square wave channels
  • One programmable waveform channel
  • One white noise generator
 Stereo audio with:
  • Four square wave channels
  • A built-in DAC for each channel
 Stereo audio (using headphones), with:
  • Three square wave channels
  • One white noise generator
 Stereo audio (using headphones), with:
  • Six programmable waveform channels
  • White noise generation
  • Optional streaming of samples

Other handheld game consoles

[edit]

Milestone titles

[edit]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ a b According to Stephen Kent's The Ultimate History of Video Games, the official launch date was September 9.[18] Newspaper and magazine articles from late 1991 report that the first shipments were in stores in some regions on August 23,[19][20] while it arrived in other regions at a later date.[21] Many modern online sources (circa 2005 and later) report August 13.[22][23]
  2. ^ Mega Drive games use the Z80 as a sound controller. The Power Base Converter effectively turns the Mega Drive into a Master System, giving control to the Z80 and leaving the 68000 dormant.
  3. ^ 30.75 million sold by Sega worldwide as of June 1996.[80][81] 1.5 million projected by Majesco Entertainment of the Genesis 3 in 1998.[82] 3 million sold by Tectoy in Brazil as of 2012.[83][84]
  4. ^ 1 million in Japan.[87] 180,000 overseas.[88]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "16-Bit's Final Hurrah". Electronic Gaming Monthly. No. 88. Ziff Davis. November 1996. pp. 21–22.
  2. ^ Sartori, Paul (April 2, 2013). "TurboGrafx-16: the console that time forgot (and why it's worth re-discovering)". The Guardian. Archived from the original on July 1, 2018. Retrieved June 26, 2017 – via www.theguardian.com.
  3. ^ Console Database Staff. "Sega Mega Drive Console Information". Console Database. Console Database/Dale Hansen. Archived from the original on October 16, 2007. Retrieved October 18, 2007.
  4. ^ Kent, Steven L. (2001). The Ultimate History of Video Games. Roseville, California: Prima Publishing. pp. 404–405. ISBN 0-7615-3643-4.
  5. ^ Kent, Steven L. (2001). The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story Behind the Craze that Touched our Lives and Changed the World. Roseville, California: Prima Publishing. pp. 424–431. ISBN 0-7615-3643-4.
  6. ^ Kent, Steven L. (2001). The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story Behind the Craze that Touched our Lives and Changed the World. Roseville, California: Prima Publishing. pp. 434, 448–449. ISBN 0-7615-3643-4.
  7. ^ "The Essential 50 Part 28: Sonic the Hedgehog". www.1up.com. Archived from the original on July 14, 2016. Retrieved April 21, 2008.
  8. ^ Kent, Steven L. (2001). The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story Behind the Craze that Touched our Lives and Changed the World. Roseville, California: Prima Publishing. p. 405. ISBN 0-7615-3643-4.
  9. ^ Kohler, Chris (July 29, 2009). "July 29, 1994: Videogame Makers Propose Ratings Board to Congress". Wired. Archived from the original on February 18, 2014. Retrieved April 20, 2015.
  10. ^ "International Outlook". Electronic Gaming Monthly. No. 53. Sendai Publishing. December 1993. p. 90.
  11. ^ Kent, Steven L. (2001). The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story Behind the Craze that Touched our Lives and Changed the World. Roseville, California: Prima Publishing. pp. 461–480. ISBN 0-7615-3643-4.
  12. ^ Ray Barnholt (August 4, 2006). "Purple Reign: 15 Years of the Super NES". 1UP.com. p. 4. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved July 13, 2007.
  13. ^ Semrad, Ed (March 1994). "Sega Sets the Pace for 1994!". Electronic Gaming Monthly. No. 56. Sendai Publishing. p. 6.
  14. ^ "History of the Sega Mega Drive - Sega Retro". segaretro.org. June 18, 2021. Archived from the original on April 1, 2020. Retrieved February 10, 2019.
  15. ^ Kent, Steven L. (2001). The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story Behind the Craze that Touched our Lives and Changed the World. Roseville, California: Prima Publishing. pp. 508, 531. ISBN 0-7615-3643-4.
  16. ^ Kent, Steven L. (2001). The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story Behind the Craze that Touched our Lives and Changed the World. Roseville, California: Prima Publishing. pp. 413–414. ISBN 0-7615-3643-4.
  17. ^ "Why Super Nintendo Is the Reason You're Still Playing Video Games". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on July 1, 2018. Retrieved June 26, 2017.
  18. ^ Kent (2001), p. 434. Kent states September 1 was planned but later rescheduled to September 9.
  19. ^ Campbell, Ron (August 27, 1991). "Super Nintendo sells quickly at OC outlets". The Orange County Register. Last weekend, months after video-game addicts started calling, Dave Adams finally was able to sell them what they craved: Super Nintendo. Adams, manager of Babbages in South Coast Plaza, got 32 of the $199.95 systems Friday. Based on the publication date, the "Friday" mentioned would be August 23, 1991.
  20. ^ "Super Nintendo It's Here!!!". Electronic Gaming Monthly. No. 28. Sendai Publishing Group. November 1991. p. 162. The Long awaited Super NES is finally available to the U.S. gaming public. The first few pieces of this unit hit the store shelves on August 23, 1991. Nintendo, however, released the first production run without any heavy fanfare or spectacular announcements.
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